Risk Factors Affecting Breast Cancer-related Lymphedema: Serial Body Weight Change During Neoadjuvant Anthracycline Plus Cyclophosphamide Followed by Taxane

Impact of neoadjuvant chemotherapy on breast cancer-related lymphedema after axillary lymph node dissection: a retrospective cohort study

PURPOSE

We aimed to evaluate whether neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) could be a risk factor for breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) associated with axillary lymph node dissection (ALND).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 596 patients with cT0-4N0-3M0 breast cancer who underwent ALND and chemotherapy were retrospectively analyzed between March 2012 and March 2022. NAC was administered in 188 patients (31.5%), while up-front surgery in 408 (68.5%). Univariate and multivariable Cox regression analyses were performed to determine whether NAC was an independent risk factor for BCRL. With propensity score matching (PSM), the NAC group and up-front surgery group were matched 1:1 by age, body mass index (BMI), molecular subtypes, type of breast surgery, and the number of positive lymph nodes. Kaplan-Meier survival analyses were performed for BCRL between groups before and after PSM. Subgroup analyses were conducted to explore whether NAC differed for BCRL occurrence in people with different characteristics.

RESULTS

At a median follow-up of 36.3 months, 130 patients (21.8%) experienced BCRL [NAC, 50/188 (26.60%) vs. up-front surgery, 80/408 (19.61%); P = 0.030]. Multivariable analysis identified that NAC [hazard ratio, 1.503; 95% CI (1.03, 2.19); P = 0.033] was an independent risk factor for BCRL. In addition, the hormone receptor-negative/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HR-/HER2-) subtype, breast-conserving surgery (BCS), and increased positive lymph nodes significantly increased BCRL risk. After PSM, NAC remained a risk factor for BCRL [hazard ratio, 1.896; 95% CI (1.18, 3.04); P = 0.007]. Subgroup analyses showed that NAC had a consistent BCRL risk in most clinical subgroups.

CONCLUSION

NAC receipt has a statistically significant increase in BCRL risk in patients with ALND. These patients should be closely monitored and may benefit from early BCRL intervention.

Quantitative analysis of the effect of docetaxel-induced edema on quality of life in patients with breast cancer and related factors: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Systemic edema is an adverse effect of docetaxel chemotherapy and causes distress to patients, including those receiving this agent for breast cancer. However, its characteristics and factors related to its effect on quality of life (QoL) have not been adequately investigated. In this study, we assessed systemic edema quantitatively, explored related factors, and evaluated QoL in patients receiving docetaxel for breast cancer.

METHODS

The study had a prospective cohort design and included 37 patients with no known history of swelling who were treated with docetaxel between September 2019 and April 2022. Patients were examined at the start, middle, and end of their course of treatment and 1 and 2 months later. Body water content, body mass, fat mass, and muscle mass were quantified using bioelectrical impedance analysis. Systemic edema was evaluated with reference to the Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events. The timing of development of systemic edema at any anatomical site that was grade 2 or worse was recorded. QoL was assessed using the Quality of Life-Anti Cancer Drug scale. Nutrition was evaluated using the Brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to identify related factors. QoL was also compared between patients with edema and those without edema.

RESULTS

Systemic edema developed in 67% of the study participants and was most prevalent at the end of treatment. Body fat mass (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.802, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.651-0.988, p = 0.038), disease stage (aOR 3.279, 95% CI 0.493-21.793, p = 0.219), and history of alcohol consumption (aOR 0.141, 95% CI 0.013-1.521, p = 0.106) were identified as risk factors for docetaxel-induced edema. Participants who developed systemic edema experienced more physical, vital, and emotional distress 1 month after treatment than those who did not. There was no association between systemic edema and nutrition.

CONCLUSIONS

Systemic edema may develop after treatment with docetaxel and increase distress in patients with a high body fat mass. Patients at risk of systemic edema should be informed in advance about the potential frequency, location, and timing of its onset and encouraged to self-manage this condition.

Comparison of machine learning models to predict the risk of breast cancer-related lymphedema among breast cancer survivors: a cross-sectional study in China

Objective

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a series of breast cancer-related lymphoedema risk prediction models using machine learning algorithms for early identification of high-risk individuals to reduce the incidence of postoperative breast cancer lymphoedema.

Methods

This was a retrospective study conducted from January 2012 to July 2022 in a tertiary oncology hospital. Subsequent to the collection of clinical data, variables with predictive capacity for breast cancer-related lymphoedema (BCRL) were subjected to scrutiny utilizing the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) technique. The entire dataset underwent a randomized partition into training and test subsets, adhering to a 7:3 distribution. Nine classification models were developed, and the model performance was evaluated based on accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, recall, precision, F-score, and area under curve (AUC) of the ROC curve. Ultimately, the selection of the optimal model hinged upon the AUC value. Grid search and 10-fold cross-validation was used to determine the best parameter setting for each algorithm.

Results

A total of 670 patients were investigated, of which 469 were in the modeling group and 201 in the validation group. A total of 174 had BCRL (25.97%). The LASSO regression model screened for the 13 features most valuable in predicting BCRL. The range of each metric in the test set for the nine models was, in order: accuracy (0.75-0.84), sensitivity (0.50-0.79), specificity (0.79-0.93), recall (0.50-0.79), precision (0.51-0.70), F score (0.56-0.69), and AUC value (0.71-0.87). Overall, LR achieved the best performance in terms of accuracy (0.81), precision (0.60), sensitivity (0.79), specificity (0.82), recall (0.79), F-score (0.68), and AUC value (0.87) for predicting BCRL.

Conclusion

The study established that the constructed logistic regression (LR) model exhibits a more favorable amalgamation of accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, recall, and AUC value. This configuration adeptly discerns patients who are at an elevated risk of BCRL. Consequently, this precise identification equips nurses with the means to undertake timely and tailored interventions, thus averting the onset of BCRL.

Development of a rat model of lymphedema and the implantation of a collagen-based medical device for therapeutic intervention

Secondary lymphedema is a common condition among cancer survivors, and treatment strategies to prevent or treat lymphedema are in high demand. The development of novel strategies to diagnose or treat lymphedema would benefit from a robust experimental animal model of secondary lymphedema. The purpose of this methods paper is to describe and summarize our experience in developing and characterizing a rat hindlimb model of lymphedema. Here we describe a protocol to induce secondary lymphedema that takes advantage of micro computed tomography imaging for limb volume measurements and visualization of lymph drainage with near infrared imaging. To demonstrate the utility of this preclinical model for studying the therapeutic benefit of novel devices, we apply this animal model to test the efficacy of a biomaterials-based implantable medical device.

Differences in Transient Fluid Retention and Lymphedema With Breast Cancer Treatment for Lymphatic Microsurgery

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) is a common complication. Repeated taxane-based chemotherapy has been shown to induce endothelial inflammation, leading to fluid retention. Patients with transient fluid retention only have upper limb edema without lymphatic dysfunction. Therefore, indocyanine green lymphography revealed linear findings, and lymphatic microsurgery is not required. This study aimed to investigate the difference between BCRL and fluid retention and present the indication for lymphatic microsurgery for these patients.

METHODS

The study population was divided into BCRL and fluid retention groups. Age, body mass index, laterality, surgery type (lymph node, breast, or no surgery), disease stage, regional lymph node irradiation, hormone therapy, chemotherapy type (taxane- or non-taxane-based group), and treatment with trastuzumab were compared.

RESULTS

The BCRL and fluid retention groups consisted of 168 and 73 patients, respectively. The BCRL group had significantly higher rates of axillary lymph node dissection (96.4%) and lymph node irradiation (51.8%) than the fluid retention group (53.4% and 24.7%, respectively; P < 0.001 for both). The fluid retention group had a significantly higher rate of taxane-based chemotherapy (100%) than the BCRL group (92.9%; P = 0.02). No significant differences in other characteristics, including treatments with hormone and trastuzumab, were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Lymphatic microsurgery should be performed after confirming the diagnosis by indocyanine green lymphography, particularly for patients with fluid retention induced by taxane-based chemotherapy. Because the generalized swelling induced by taxane-based chemotherapy is resolved 6 months after chemotherapy, we should wait at least 6 months to perform lymphatic microsurgery.

Risk factors of unilateral breast cancer-related lymphedema: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of 84 cohort studies

PURPOSE

To review and update the incidence and risk factors for breast cancer-related lymphedema based on cohort studies.

METHODS

The study was guided by the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology and the Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews. PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library, CNKI, SinoMed, and Wan Fang Database were searched from inception to November 15, 2021. Cohort studies reported adjusted risk factors were selected. PRISMA guideline was followed. Study quality were evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Random-effects models were adopted. The robustness of pooled estimates was validated by meta-regression and subgroup analysis. Lymphedema incidence and adjusted risk factors in the multivariable analyses with hazard / odds ratios and 95% CIs were recorded.

RESULTS

Eighty-four cohort studies involving 58,358 breast cancer patients were included. The pooled incidence of lymphedema was 21.9% (95% CI, 19.8-24.0%). Fourteen factors were identified including ethnicity (black vs. white), higher body mass index, higher weight increase, hypertension, higher cancer stage (III vs. I-II), larger tumor size, mastectomy (vs. breast conservation surgery), axillary lymph nodes dissection, more lymph nodes dissected, higher level of lymph nodes dissection, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery complications, and higher relative volume increase postoperatively. Additionally, breast reconstruction surgery, and adequate finance were found to play a protective role. However, other variables such as age, number of positive lymph nodes, and exercise were not correlated with risk of lymphedema.

CONCLUSION

Treatment-related factors still leading the development of breast cancer-related lymphedema. Other factors such as postoperative weight increase and finance status also play a part. Our findings suggest the need to shift the focus from treatment-related factors to modifiable psycho-social-behavioral factors.

Investigation of the Association Between Breast Cancer-Related Lymphedema and the Side Effects of Taxane-Based Chemotherapy Using Indocyanine Green Lymphography

Background: Breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) is a common complication. Docetaxel (DOC) and paclitaxel (PTX) have been used in taxane-based chemotherapy for breast cancer and to induce fluid retention. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between lymphatic functionality and the side effects of taxane-based chemotherapy using indocyanine green (ICG) lymphography. Methods and Results: One hundred and eighty breast cancer cases who underwent full-dose taxane-based chemotherapy (DOC or PTX) and complained of upper extremity edema were enrolled in this study. BCRL was diagnosed exclusively on the basis of ICG lymphography results. The characteristics (age, body mass index, laterality, surgery type, regional lymph node irradiation, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy type) of patients diagnosed with BCRL (+) and BCRL (-; fluid retention only) were compared. The side effects were compared in eight categories (neutropenia, skin toxicity, nail changes, myalgia/arthralgia, peripheral neuropathy, stomatitis, dysgeusia, and digestive disease). BCRL (+) consisted of 116 patients and BCRL (-) consisted of 64 patients. BCRL (+) had significantly higher rates of axillary lymph node dissection (98.3%), lymph node irradiation (68.1%), neoadjuvant chemotherapy (14.7%), and DOC (62.9%) than BCRL (-) patients (56.3%, 20.3%, 3.1%, and 34.4%, respectively; p = 0.002 for neoadjuvant rate, p < 0.001 for the other rates). BCRL (+) patients had significantly higher rates of peripheral neuropathy (60.3%) than BCRL (-) patients (40.6%; p = 0.01). Conclusions: The occurrence rate of BCRL increased for the patients with peripheral neuropathy induced by taxane-based chemotherapy. This implies that peripheral neuropathy can induce BCRL.

Burden of lymphedema in long-term breast cancer survivors by race and age

BACKGROUND

Risk assessment for breast cancer-related lymphedema has emphasized upper-limb symptoms and treatment-related risk factors. This article examined breast cancer-related lymphedema after surgery, overall and in association with broader demographic and clinical features.

METHODS

The Carolina Breast Cancer Study phase 3 followed participants for breast cancer-related lymphedema from baseline (on average, 5 months after breast cancer diagnosis) to 7 years after diagnosis. Among 2645 participants, 552 self-reported lymphedema cases were identified. Time-to-lymphedema curves and inverse probability weighted conditional Cox proportional hazards model were used to evaluate whether demographics and clinical features were associated with breast cancer-related lymphedema.

RESULTS

Point prevalence of breast cancer-related lymphedema was 6.8% at baseline, and 19.9% and 23.8% at 2 and 7 years after diagnosis, respectively. Most cases had lymphedema in the arm (88%-93%), whereas 14% to 27% presented in the trunk and/or breast. Beginning approximately 10 months after diagnosis, younger Black women had the highest risk of breast cancer-related lymphedema and older non-Black women had the lowest risk. Positive lymph node status, larger tumor size (>5 cm), and estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer, as well as established risk factors such as higher body mass index, removal of more than five lymph nodes, mastectomy, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, were significantly associated with increased hazard (1.5- to 3.5-fold) of lymphedema.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight that hazard of breast cancer-related lymphedema differs by demographic characteristics and clinical features. These factors could be used to identify those at greatest need of lymphedema prevention and early intervention.

LAY SUMMARY

In this study, the aim was to investigate breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) burden. This study found that risk of BCRL differs by race, age, and other characteristics.

Lymphatic regeneration after implantation of aligned nanofibrillar collagen scaffolds: Preliminary preclinical and clinical results

BACKGROUND

We tested our hypothesis that implantation of aligned nanofibrillar collagen scaffolds (BioBridge™) can both prevent and reduce established lymphedema in the rat lymphedema model. Our authors report clinical cases that demonstrate new lymphatic formation guided by BioBridge™ as seen by near-infrared (NIR) fluoroscopy and magnetic resonance (MR) lymphography.

METHODS

A rat lymphedema model was utilized. A prevention group received implantation of BioBridge™ immediately after lymphadenectomy. A lymphedema group received implantation of BioBridge™ with autologous adipose-derived stem cells (ADSC; treatment group) or remained untreated (control group). All subjects were observed for 4 months after lymphadenectomy. The hindlimb change was evaluated using computed tomography-based volumetric analysis. Lymphagiogenesis was assessed by indocyanine green (ICG) lymphography.

RESULTS

Animals in the treatment group showed a reduction in affected limb volume. Animals in the prevention group showed no increase in the affected limb volume. ICG fluoroscopy demonstrated lymph flow and formation of lymphatics toward healthy lymphatics.

CONCLUSIONS

In the rat lymphedema model, implantation of BioBridge™ at the time of lymph node removal prevents the development of lymphedema. Treatment of established lymphedema with the BioBridge™ and ADSC reduces lymphedema. New lymphatic vessels are demonstrated by NIR fluoroscopy and MR lymphography. These findings have implications for the treatment of lymphedema in human subjects.

Breast cancer-related lymphoedema: Risk factors and prediction model

AIMS

To identify the risk factors for lymphoedema following axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) in a European sample and to propose a lymphoedema prediction model for this population.

DESIGN

Predictive retrospective cohort study comparing women who developed lymphoedema in 2 years of undergoing ALND with those who did not developed lymphoedema.

METHODS

We reviewed the clinical records of 504 women who, between January 2008 and May 2018, underwent surgery for breast cancer that involved ALND. Logistic regression was used to identify significant risk factors for lymphoedema. The prediction accuracy of the model was assessed by calculating the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve.

RESULTS

Of the 504 women whose records were analysed, 156 developed lymphoedema. Significant predictors identified in the regression model were level of lymph node dissection, lymph node status, post-operative complications, body mass index (BMI) and number of lymph nodes extracted. The prediction model showed good sensitivity (80%) in the study population.

CONCLUSIONS

The factor contributing most to the risk of lymphoedema was the level of lymph node dissection, and the only patient-related factor in the prediction model was BMI. The model offers good predictive capacity in this population and it is a simple tool that breast care units could use to assess the risk of lymphoedema following ALND. Nurses with specialist knowledge of lymphoedema have a key role to play in ensuring that women receive holistic and individualized care.

IMPACT

What problem did the study address? Secondary lymphoedema is one of the main complications in the treatment of breast cancer. What were the main findings? The prediction model included five factors associated with the risk of lymphoedema following ALND. The strongest predictor was the level of lymph node dissection, and the only patient-related factor was BMI. Where and on whom will the research have an impact? The prediction model offers breast care units a tool for assessing the risk of lymphoedema in women undergoing surgery involving ALND. The results highlight the importance of weight reduction as a preventive measure and support a more conservative surgical approach.

Features, Predictors, and Treatment of Breast Cancer-related Lymphedema

Purpose of review

Breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) is a common sequelae among breast cancer survivors. This review provides updated information on recent studies to prevent, diagnose, and actively treat women with BCRL.

Recent findings

In total, 63 articles were identified from 2015 and 2020 that assessed incidence, risk factors, surveillance, measurement and definition, treatment, and awareness of BCRL. Depending on the approach and timing of assessment, BCRL incidence rates ranged from 9.1% to 39%. Modified radical mastectomy, number of positive lymph nodes, and postoperative complications were linked to BCRL risk, in addition to chemotherapy, radiation, axillary lymph node dissection, advanced cancer stage, and higher body mass index. Early detection showed favorable BCRL outcomes (e.g., severity, symptoms). Exercise, self-management, complete decongestive therapy, bandaging, and surgery had positive effects on BCRL outcomes.

Summary

Numerous gaps exist within BCRL literature, such as the value of self-reported surveillance options to identify BCRL early, measurement strategies, and definitions of BCRL. In terms of policies, efforts are needed to educate providers, patients, payers, and legislators about the need for consensus to reduce the burden of BCRL in women being treated for breast cancer.

Factors Associated With Lymphedema in Women With Node-Positive Breast Cancer Treated With Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy and Axillary Dissection

Importance

Most lymphedema studies include a heterogeneous population and focus on patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy.

Objective

To examine factors associated with lymphedema after neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) and axillary lymph node dissection in women with node-positive breast cancer.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study included data from 701 women 18 years or older with cT0-T4N1-2M0 breast cancer with documented axillary nodal metastasis at diagnosis who were enrolled in the American College of Surgeons Oncology Group Z1071 (Alliance for Clinical Trials in Oncology) trial, which took place from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2012. Data analysis was performed from January 11, 2018, to November 9, 2018.

Interventions

All participants received NAC, breast operation, and axillary lymph node dissection. Participants underwent prospective arm measurements and symptom assessment after NAC completion and at 6-month intervals to 36 months postoperatively.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Factors associated with lymphedema were defined as self-reported arm heaviness or swelling (lymphedema symptoms) or an arm volume increase of 10% or more (V10) or 20% or more (V20).

Results

A total of 486 patients (mean [SD] age, 50.1 [10.8] years) were included in this study. Median follow-up for the 3 measures was 2.2 to 3.0 years. Cumulative lymphedema incidence at 3 years was 37.8% (95% CI, 33.1%-43.2%) for lymphedema symptoms, 58.4% (95% CI, 53.2%-64.1%) for V10, and 36.9% (95% CI, 31.9%-42.6%) for V20. Increasing body mass index (hazard ratio [HR], 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.06) and NAC for 144 days or longer (HR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.01-2.17) were associated with lymphedema symptoms. The V20 incidence was higher among patients who received NAC for 144 days or longer (HR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.19-2.68). The V10 incidence was highest in patients with 30 nodes or more removed (HR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.15-2.52) and increased with number of positive nodes (HR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.00-1.06). On multivariable analysis, obesity was significantly associated with lymphedema symptoms (HR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01-1.06), and NAC length was significantly associated with V20 (HR, 1.74; 95% CI, 1.15-2.62).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study, longer NAC duration and obesity were associated with increased lymphedema incidence, suggesting that patients in these groups may benefit from enhanced prospective lymphedema surveillance.

The role of adjunct nanofibrillar collagen scaffold implantation in the surgical management of secondary lymphedema: Review of the literature and summary of initial pilot studies

Secondary lymphedema is a worldwide affliction that exacts a significant public health burden. This review examines the etiology, presentation, and management of secondary lymphedema. In addition, emerging adjunctive strategies are explored, specifically evidence from animal and pilot human studies regarding implantation of a collagen nanofibrillar scaffold (BioBridge™; Fibralign Corporation, Union City, CA) in promoting lymphangiogenesis, preventing and treating lymphedema, and enhancing outcomes with lymphaticovenous anastomosis and vascularized lymph node transfer.

Sodium Selenite Alleviates Breast Cancer-Related Lymphedema Independent of Antioxidant Defense System

Long-term surveillance is necessary to identify patients at risk of developing secondary lymphedema after breast cancer surgery. We assessed how sodium selenite supplementation would affect breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) symptoms and parameters in association with antioxidant effects. A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial was conducted on 26 participants with clinical stage II to III BCRL. The control group (CTRL, n = 12) and selenium group (SE, n = 14) underwent five sessions of 0.9% saline and 500 μg sodium selenite (Selenase^®) IV injections, respectively, within 2 weeks. All patients were educated on recommended behavior and self-administered manual lymphatic drainage. Clinical diagnosis on lymphedema by physicians, bioimpedance data, blood levels of oxidative markers, including glutathione (GSH), glutathione disulfide (GSSG), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase activity (GSH-Px), and serum oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) levels, were investigated at timelines defined as baseline, 2-week, and follow-up. Sodium selenite increased whole blood selenium concentration in the SE group. Compared to the baseline, at 2 weeks, 75.0% of participants in clinical stage showed improvement, while there was no change in the CTRL group. At follow-up, 83.3% and 10.0% of the SE and CTRL, respectively, showed stage changes from III to II (p = 0.002). Extracellular water (ECW) ratios were significantly reduced at 2 weeks and follow-up, only in the SE group. Blood GSH, GSSG, GSH/GSSG ratio, MDA, and ORAC levels did not change by selenium supplementation. Sodium selenite improved diagnostic stages of BCRL along with ECW ratios, although the beneficial effect might not be related to its antioxidant activity. Selenite’s effect on lymphedema may be associated with non-antioxidant properties, such as anti-inflammation and immune function. Further mechanistic research using a larger population is needed.