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Chen J, He Y, Zhong H, Hu F, Li Y, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Lin W, Li Q, Xu F, Chen S, Zhang H, Cai W, Li L. Transcriptome analysis of CD4+ T cells from HIV-infected individuals receiving ART with LLV revealed novel transcription factors regulating HIV-1 promoter activity. Virol Sin 2023:S1995-820X(23)00022-6. [PMID: 36907331 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2023.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Some HIV-infected individuals receiving ART develop low-level viremia (LLV), with a plasma viral load of 50-1000 copies/mL. Persistent low-level viremia is associated with subsequent virologic failure. The peripheral blood CD4+ T cell pool is a source of LLV. However, the intrinsic characteristics of CD4+ T cells in LLV which may contribute to low-level viremia are largely unknown. We analyzed the transcriptome profiling of peripheral blood CD4+ T cells from healthy controls (HC) and HIV-infected patients receiving ART with either virologic suppression (VS) or LLV. To identify pathways potentially responding to increasing viral loads from HC to VS and to LLV, KEGG pathways of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were acquired by comparing VS with HC (VS-HC group) and LLV with VS (LLV-VS group). Characterization of DEGs in key overlapping pathways showed that CD4+ T cells in LLV expressed higher levels of Th1 signature transcription factors (TBX21), toll-like receptors (TLR-4, -6, -7 and -8), anti-HIV entry chemokines (CCL3 and CCL4), and anti-IL-1β factors (ILRN and IL1R2) compared to VS. Our results also indicated activation of the NF-κB and TNF signaling pathways that could promote HIV-1 transcription. Finally, we evaluated the effects of 4 and 17 transcription factors that were upregulated in the VS-HC and LLV-VS groups, respectively, on HIV-1 promoter activity. Functional studies revealed that CXXC5 significantly increased, while SOX5 markedly suppressed HIV-1 transcription. In summary, we found that CD4+ T cells in LLV displayed a distinct mRNA profiling compared to that in VS, which promoted HIV-1 replication and reactivation of viral latency and may eventually contribute to virologic failure in patients with persistent LLV. CXXC5 and SOX5 may serve as targets for the development of latency-reversing agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingliang Chen
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Yaozu He
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Huolin Zhong
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Fengyu Hu
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Yonghong Li
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Yeyang Zhang
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Xia Zhang
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Weiyin Lin
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Quanmin Li
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Feilong Xu
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Shaozhen Chen
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Institute of Human Virology, Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control of Ministry Education, Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Antimicrobial Agent and Immunotechnology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China; Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou International Bio-Island, Guangzhou, 510005, China.
| | - Weiping Cai
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China.
| | - Linghua Li
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510440, China.
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Chlamydia trachomatis Stimulation Enhances HIV-1 Susceptibility through the Modulation of a Member of the Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins. J Invest Dermatol 2021; 142:1338-1348.e6. [PMID: 34662561 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2021.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Sexually transmitted infections such as Chlamydia trachomatis can enhance HIV-1 infection. However, the molecular mechanisms modulating the enhancement of HIV-1 infectivity and replication during HIV-1/sexually transmitted infections coinfection remain elusive. In this study, we performed an ex vivo infection of HIV-1 in PBMCs of C. trachomatis‒infected patients and observed a significant increase in HIV-1 p24 levels compared with those in cells from healthy donors. Similarly, C. trachomatis‒stimulated PBMCs from healthy donors showed enhanced susceptibility to HIV-1. C. trachomatis‒stimulated CD4 T cells also harbored more HIV-1 copy numbers. RNA sequencing data revealed the upregulation of CCL3L1/CCL3L3, a paralog of CCL3 in C. trachomatis‒stimulated CD4 T cells infected with HIV-1. Furthermore, an increase in CCL3L1/CCL3L3 expression levels correlated with HIV-1 replication in C. trachomatis‒stimulated cells. However, the addition of exogenous CCL3L1 reduces HIV-1 infection of healthy cells, indicating a dual role of CCL3L1 in HIV-1 infection. Further investigation revealed that a knockout of CCL3L1/CCL3L3 in Jurkat T cells rescued the increased susceptibility of C. trachomatis‒stimulated cells to HIV-1 infection. These results reveal a role for CCL3L1/CCL3L3 in enhancing HIV-1 replication and production and highlight a mechanism for the enhanced susceptibility to HIV-1 among C. trachomatis‒infected patients.
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Tuaillon E, Viljoen J, Dujols P, Cambonie G, Rubbo PA, Nagot N, Bland RM, Badiou S, Newell ML, Van de Perre P. Subclinical mastitis occurs frequently in association with dramatic changes in inflammatory/anti-inflammatory breast milk components. Pediatr Res 2017; 81:556-564. [PMID: 27814344 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2016.220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is a frequent, but poorly characterized entity that may influence immune development of breastfed infants. Mechanisms driving the emergence of SCM and changes in immunological content of human milk during SCM remain to be explored. In this study, the breast milk environment was to describe during SCM. METHODS One hundred and ten samples of mature breast milk were collected from 44 healthy, HIV-negative mothers, included in a large infant feeding intervention cohort (ANRS 1271/Vertical Transmission Study). Immune markers related to inflammatory/anti-inflammatory balances and secreted in response to bacterial exposure were explored in SCM breast milk samples (Na/K ratio > 1) and compared to non-SCM controls. RESULTS SCM was observed in 23% of women (95% confidence interval (CI): 21-24) and associated with higher levels of inflammatory markers (β2 microgobulin, PS100A9, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17, and RANTES) and Th1-related cytokines (IL-2R, IL-12p40/70, IFN-α, IFN-γ, CXCL-9, andIP-10). High levels of factors secreted in response to bacteria and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure were observed in SCM breast milk samples (MIP-1α, MIP-1β, LPS binding protein, α-defensins, and antileukoproteinase 1). CONCLUSION SCM is associated with important changes in breast milk microenvironment, with a proinflammatory/Th1-cytokine predominant profile. During SCM, cytokine imbalances in breast milk may have a notable influence on mucosal immune system of the infant early in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edouard Tuaillon
- UMR Inserm U1058, EFS, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France.,CHRU de Montpellier, Département de Bactériologie-Virologie, Montpellier, France
| | - Johanes Viljoen
- UMR Inserm U1058, EFS, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France.,Africa Centre for Health and Population Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.,Department Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Parktown, South Africa
| | - Pierre Dujols
- UMR Inserm U1058, EFS, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France.,CHRU de Montpellier, Département d'Information Médicale, Montpellier, France
| | - Gilles Cambonie
- CHRU de Montpellier, Département de Néonatologie, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Nicolas Nagot
- UMR Inserm U1058, EFS, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France.,CHRU de Montpellier, Département d'Information Médicale, Montpellier, France
| | - Ruth M Bland
- Africa Centre for Health and Population Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.,Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, UK
| | - Stéphanie Badiou
- Département de Biochimie, CHRU Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Philippe Van de Perre
- UMR Inserm U1058, EFS, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, France.,CHRU de Montpellier, Département de Bactériologie-Virologie, Montpellier, France
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Sigel K, Wisnivesky J, Crothers K, Gordon K, Brown ST, Rimland D, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Gibert C, Goetz MB, Bedimo R, Park LS, Dubrow R. Immunological and infectious risk factors for lung cancer in US veterans with HIV: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet HIV 2016; 4:e67-e73. [PMID: 27916584 DOI: 10.1016/s2352-3018(16)30215-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND HIV infection is independently associated with risk of lung cancer, but few data exist for the relation between longitudinal measurements of immune function and lung-cancer risk in people living with HIV. METHODS We followed up participants with HIV from the Veterans Aging Cohort Study for a minimum of 3 years between Jan 1, 1998, and Dec 31, 2012, and used cancer registry data to identify incident cases of lung cancer. The index date for each patient was the later of the date HIV care began or Jan 1, 1998. We excluded patients with less than 3 years' follow-up, prevalent diagnoses of lung cancer, or incomplete laboratory data. We used Cox regression models to investigate the relation between different time-updated lagged and cumulative exposures (CD4 cell count, CD8 cell count, CD4/CD8 ratio, HIV RNA, and bacterial pneumonia) and risk of lung cancer. Models were adjusted for age, race or ethnicity, smoking, hepatitis C virus infection, alcohol use disorders, drug use disorders, and history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and occupational lung disease. FINDINGS We identified 277 cases of incident lung cancer in 21 666 participants with HIV. In separate models for each time-updated 12 month lagged, 24 month simple moving average cumulative exposure, increased risk of lung cancer was associated with low CD4 cell count (p trend=0·001), low CD4/CD8 ratio (p trend=0·0001), high HIV RNA concentration (p=0·004), and more cumulative bacterial pneumonia episodes (12 month lag only; p trend=0·0004). In a mutually adjusted model including these factors, CD4/CD8 ratio and cumulative bacterial pneumonia episodes remained significant (p trends 0·003 and 0·004, respectively). INTERPRETATION In our large HIV cohort in the antiretroviral therapy era, we found evidence that dysfunctional immune activation and chronic inflammation contribute to the development of lung cancer in the setting of HIV infection. These findings could be used to target lung-cancer prevention measures to high-risk groups. FUNDING US National Institutes of Health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Sigel
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Juan Wisnivesky
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kristina Crothers
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kirsha Gordon
- Department of Medicine, VA Connecticut Healthcare System and Yale Schools of Medicine and Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sheldon T Brown
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Infectious Diseases Section, James J Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - David Rimland
- Infectious Diseases Section, Atlanta VA Medical Center and Emory University School of Medicine, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Maria C Rodriguez-Barradas
- Infectious Diseases Section, Michael E DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Cynthia Gibert
- Department of Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Washington DC Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Matthew Bidwell Goetz
- Department of Medicine, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA; David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Roger Bedimo
- Division of Infectious Diseases, VA North Texas Health Care System, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Lesley S Park
- Center for Population Health Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Robert Dubrow
- Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
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Abstract
Pulmonary malignancies are a major source of morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected persons. Non-AIDS-defining lung cancers (mostly non-small cell lung cancers) are now a leading cause of cancer death among HIV-infected persons. HIV-associated factors appear to affect the risk of lung cancer and may adversely impact cancer treatment and outcomes. HIV infection also may modify the potential harms and benefits of lung cancer screening with computed tomography. AIDS-defining lung malignancies include pulmonary Kaposi sarcoma and pulmonary lymphoma, both of which are less prevalent with widespread adoption of antiretroviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Sigel
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Robert Pitts
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
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Costiniuk CT, Jenabian MA. The lungs as anatomical reservoirs of HIV infection. Rev Med Virol 2013; 24:35-54. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia T. Costiniuk
- KwaZulu-Natal Research Institute for Tuberculosis and HIV (K-RITH); Durban South Africa
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine; University of Ottawa; Ottawa ON Canada
| | - Mohammad-Ali Jenabian
- Chronic Viral Illnesses Service; Montreal Chest Institute; Montreal QC Canada
- Research Institute; McGill University Health Centre; Montreal QC Canada
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Gundavarapu S, Mishra NC, Singh SP, Langley RJ, Saeed AI, Feghali-Bostwick CA, McIntosh JM, Hutt J, Hegde R, Buch S, Sopori ML. HIV gp120 induces mucus formation in human bronchial epithelial cells through CXCR4/α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77160. [PMID: 24155926 PMCID: PMC3796539 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and lung infections are major causes of morbidity and mortality among HIV-infected patients even in the era of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Many of these diseases are strongly associated with smoking and smoking is more common among HIV-infected than uninfected people; however, HIV is an independent risk factor for chronic bronchitis, COPD, and asthma. The mechanism by which HIV promotes these diseases is unclear. Excessive airway mucus formation is a characteristic of these diseases and contributes to airway obstruction and lung infections. HIV gp120 plays a critical role in several HIV-related pathologies and we investigated whether HIV gp120 promoted airway mucus formation in normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells. We found that NHBE cells expressed the HIV-coreceptor CXCR4 but not CCR5 and produced mucus in response to CXCR4-tropic gp120. The gp120-induced mucus formation was blocked by the inhibitors of CXCR4, α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)AR but not the antagonists of CCR5 and epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR). These results identify two distinct pathways (α7-nAChR-GABAAR and EGFR) for airway mucus formation and demonstrate for the first time that HIV-gp120 induces and regulates mucus formation in the airway epithelial cells through the CXCR4-α7-nAChR-GABAAR pathway. Interestingly, lung sections from HIV ± ART and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) ± ART have significantly more mucus and gp120-immunoreactivity than control lung sections from humans and macaques, respectively. Thus, even after ART, lungs from HIV-infected patients contain significant amounts of gp120 and mucus that may contribute to the higher incidence of obstructive pulmonary diseases in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sravanthi Gundavarapu
- Respiratory Immunology Division, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Neerad C. Mishra
- Respiratory Immunology Division, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Shashi P. Singh
- Respiratory Immunology Division, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Raymond J. Langley
- Respiratory Immunology Division, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Ali Imran Saeed
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Carol A. Feghali-Bostwick
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - J. Michael McIntosh
- George E. Wahlen Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Departments of Psychiatry and Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Julie Hutt
- Respiratory Immunology Division, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Ramakrishna Hegde
- The Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Shilpa Buch
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Mohan L. Sopori
- Respiratory Immunology Division, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
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Zhai RR, Jiang AP, Wang HB, Ma L, Ren XX, Jiang JF, Wu L, Wei JF, Wang JH. Histamine enhances HIV-1-induced modulation of dendritic cells to skew naïve T cell differentiation toward regulatory T cells. Virology 2013; 442:163-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2013] [Revised: 03/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
The broad variety of pulmonary infections encountered in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals demonstrates that the host defense network is impaired. An improved understanding of these events in the lung can lead to specific interventions aimed at restoration of deficient function. This review summarizes the pulmonary host defense deficits in HIV-infected individuals, focusing on lymphocytes, alveolar macrophages, and neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Beck
- Medicine Service, Veterans Affairs Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Denver, CO 80220, USA.
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Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy has improved longevity for HIV-infected persons, but long-term HIV infection is now complicated by increased rates of chronic medical conditions including pulmonary disorders. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, asthma, and pulmonary hypertension are becoming common comorbidities of HIV infection, and these diseases may develop as a result of HIV-related risk factors, such as antiretroviral drug toxicities, colonization by infectious organisms, HIV viremia, immune activation, or immune dysfunction. It also appears that the ability to control HIV infection does not completely eliminate the risk for infectious complications, such as bacterial pneumonia and tuberculosis. The effect of HIV infection on lung-specific immune responses is being elucidated to help develop better prevention and treatment strategies in HIV-infected persons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Gingo
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Alison Morris
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Zhang M, Clausell A, Robinson T, Yin J, Chen E, Johnson L, Weiss G, Sabbaj S, Lowe RM, Wagner FH, Goepfert PA, Kutsch O, Cron RQ. Host factor transcriptional regulation contributes to preferential expression of HIV type 1 in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:2746-57. [PMID: 22875803 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
HIV type 1 (HIV-1) replicates preferentially in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells for unclear reasons. We show increased HIV-1 expression is irrespective of viral tropism for chemokine receptors as previously suggested, but rather transcription of the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) is increased in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells. Increased expression of HIV-1 message is also confirmed in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells from HIV-1-infected individuals ex vivo. In exploring a transcriptional mechanism, we identify a novel c-maf (required for IL-4 expression) transcription factor binding site just upstream of the dual NF-κB/NFAT binding sites in the proximal HIV-1 LTR. We demonstrate that c-maf binds this site in vivo and synergistically augments HIV-1 transcription in cooperation with NFAT2 and NF-κB p65, but not NFAT1 or NF-κB p50. Conversely, small interfering RNA inhibition of c-maf reduces HIV-1 transcription in IL-4-producing T cells. Thus, c-maf increases HIV-1 expression in IL-4-producing CD4 T cells by binding the proximal HIV-1 LTR and augmenting HIV-1 transcription in partnership with NFAT2 and NF-κB p65 specifically. This has important implications for selective targeting of transcription factors during HIV-1 infection because, over the course of HIV-1 progression/AIDS, IL-4-producing T cells frequently predominate and substantially contribute to disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingce Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
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Van de Perre P, Rubbo PA, Viljoen J, Nagot N, Tylleskar T, Lepage P, Vendrell JP, Tuaillon E. HIV-1 Reservoirs in Breast Milk and Challenges to Elimination of Breast-Feeding Transmission of HIV-1. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4:143sr3. [DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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