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Ranasinghe JC, Wang Z, Huang S. Unveiling brain disorders using liquid biopsy and Raman spectroscopy. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:11879-11913. [PMID: 38845582 PMCID: PMC11290551 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr01413h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Brain disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) and traumatic brain injury (TBI), present significant challenges in early diagnosis and intervention. Conventional imaging modalities, while valuable, lack the molecular specificity necessary for precise disease characterization. Compared to the study of conventional brain tissues, liquid biopsy, which focuses on blood, tear, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), also unveils a myriad of underlying molecular processes, providing abundant predictive clinical information. In addition, liquid biopsy is minimally- to non-invasive, and highly repeatable, offering the potential for continuous monitoring. Raman spectroscopy (RS), with its ability to provide rich molecular information and cost-effectiveness, holds great potential for transformative advancements in early detection and understanding the biochemical changes associated with NDs and TBI. Recent developments in Raman enhancement technologies and advanced data analysis methods have enhanced the applicability of RS in probing the intricate molecular signatures within biological fluids, offering new insights into disease pathology. This review explores the growing role of RS as a promising and emerging tool for disease diagnosis in brain disorders, particularly through the analysis of liquid biopsy. It discusses the current landscape and future prospects of RS in the diagnosis of brain disorders, highlighting its potential as a non-invasive and molecularly specific diagnostic tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeewan C Ranasinghe
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.
| | - Ziyang Wang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.
| | - Shengxi Huang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.
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Kralova K, Vrtelka O, Fouskova M, Smirnova TA, Michalkova L, Hribek P, Urbanek P, Kuckova S, Setnicka V. Comprehensive spectroscopic, metabolomic, and proteomic liquid biopsy in the diagnostics of hepatocellular carcinoma. Talanta 2024; 270:125527. [PMID: 38134814 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Liquid biopsy is a very topical issue in clinical diagnostics research nowadays. In this study, we explored and compared various analytical approaches to blood plasma analysis. Finally, we proposed a comprehensive procedure, which, thanks to the utilization of multiple analytical techniques, allowed the targeting of various biomolecules in blood plasma reflecting diverse biological processes underlying disease development. The potential of such an approach, combining proteomics, metabolomics, and vibrational spectroscopy along with preceding blood plasma fractionation, was demonstrated on blood plasma samples of patients suffering from hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic terrain (n = 20) and control subjects with liver cirrhosis (n = 20) as well as healthy subjects (n = 20). Most of the applied methods allowed the classification of the samples with an accuracy exceeding 80.0 % and therefore have the potential to be used as a stand-alone method in clinical diagnostics. Moreover, a final panel of 48 variables obtained by a combination of the utilized analytical methods enabled the discrimination of the hepatocellular carcinoma samples from cirrhosis with 94.3 % cross-validated accuracy. Thus, this study, although limited by the cohort size, clearly demonstrated the benefit of the multimethod approach in clinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Kralova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Vrtelka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Marketa Fouskova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Tatiana Anatolievna Smirnova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Michalkova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the CAS, Rozvojova 135, 165 02, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Hribek
- Military University Hospital Prague, Department of Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, U Vojenske Nemocnice 1200, 169 02, Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Military Health Sciences in Hradec Kralove, University of Defense, Trebesska 1575, 500 01, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Urbanek
- Military University Hospital Prague, Department of Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, U Vojenske Nemocnice 1200, 169 02, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Stepanka Kuckova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimir Setnicka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28, Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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Kralova K, Vrtelka O, Fouskova M, Hribek P, Bunganic B, Miskovicova M, Urbanek P, Zavoral M, Petruzelka L, Habartova L, Setnicka V. Raman spectroscopy and Raman optical activity of blood plasma for differential diagnosis of gastrointestinal cancers. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 305:123430. [PMID: 37776835 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2023.123430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Improving the early diagnosis of gastrointestinal cancers is a crucial step in reducing their mortality. Given the non-specificity of the initial symptoms, the ability of any diagnostic method to differentiate between various types of gastrointestinal cancers also needs to be addressed. To detect disease-specific alterations in biomolecular structure and composition of the blood plasma, we have implemented an approach combining Raman spectroscopy and its conformation-sensitive polarized version, Raman optical activity, to analyze blood plasma samples of patients suffering from three different types of gastrointestinal cancer - hepatocellular, colorectal and pancreatic. First, we aimed to discriminate any type of gastrointestinal cancer from healthy control individuals; inthenext step, the focus was on differentiating among the three cancer types studied. The more straightforward of the two statistical approaches tested, the combination of linear discriminant analysis and principal component analysis applied to the entire spectral dataset, allowed the discrimination of cancer and control samples with 87% accuracy. The three gastrointestinal cancers were classified with an overall accuracy of 76%. The second method, the linear discriminant analysis applied to a selection of spectral bands, yielded even higher values. Cancer and control samples were distinguished with 89% accuracy and hepatocellular, colorectal and pancreatic cancer with an overall accuracy of 87%. The results obtained in our study suggest that the proposed approach may become a disease-specific diagnostic tool in daily clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Kralova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Ondrej Vrtelka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Marketa Fouskova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Hribek
- Military University Hospital Prague, Department of Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, U Vojenske nemocnice 1200, 169 02 Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Military Health Sciences in Hradec Kralove, University of Defense, Trebesska 1575, 500 01 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Bohus Bunganic
- Military University Hospital Prague, Department of Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, U Vojenske nemocnice 1200, 169 02 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Miskovicova
- Department of Oncology, First Faculty of Medicine of Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, U Nemocnice 2, 128 08 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Urbanek
- Military University Hospital Prague, Department of Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, U Vojenske nemocnice 1200, 169 02 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Zavoral
- Military University Hospital Prague, Department of Medicine 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University and Military University Hospital Prague, U Vojenske nemocnice 1200, 169 02 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Lubos Petruzelka
- Department of Oncology, First Faculty of Medicine of Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, U Nemocnice 2, 128 08 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Habartova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimir Setnicka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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Kralova K, Kral M, Vrtelka O, Setnicka V. Comparative study of Raman spectroscopy techniques in blood plasma-based clinical diagnostics: A demonstration on Alzheimer's disease. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 304:123392. [PMID: 37716043 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2023.123392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, there are still many diseases with limited or no reliable methods of early diagnosis. A popular approach in clinical diagnostic research is Raman spectroscopy, as a relatively simple, cost-effective, and high-throughput method for searching for disease-specific alterations in the composition of blood plasma. However, the high variability of the experimental designs, targeted diseases, or statistical processing in the individual studies makes it challenging to compare and compile the results to critically assess the applicability of Raman spectroscopy in real clinical practice. This study aimed to compare data from a single series of blood plasma samples of patients with Alzheimer's disease and non-demented elderly controls obtained by four different techniques/experimental setups - Raman spectroscopy with excitation at 532 and 785 nm, Raman optical activity, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering spectroscopy. The obtained results showed that the spectra from each Raman spectroscopy technique contain different information about biomolecules of blood plasma or their conformation and may, therefore, offer diverse points of view on underlying biochemical processes of the disease. The classification models based on the datasets generated by the three non-chiroptical variants of Raman spectroscopy exhibited comparable diagnostic performance, all reaching an accuracy close to or equal to 80%. Raman optical activity achieved only 60% classification accuracy, suggesting its limited applicability in the specific case of Alzheimer's disease diagnostics. The described differences in the outputs of the four utilized techniques/setups of Raman spectroscopy imply that their choice may crucially affect the acquired results and thus should be approached carefully concerning the specific purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Kralova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kral
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Vrtelka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimir Setnicka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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Lista S, González-Domínguez R, López-Ortiz S, González-Domínguez Á, Menéndez H, Martín-Hernández J, Lucia A, Emanuele E, Centonze D, Imbimbo BP, Triaca V, Lionetto L, Simmaco M, Cuperlovic-Culf M, Mill J, Li L, Mapstone M, Santos-Lozano A, Nisticò R. Integrative metabolomics science in Alzheimer's disease: Relevance and future perspectives. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 89:101987. [PMID: 37343679 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.101987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is determined by various pathophysiological mechanisms starting 10-25 years before the onset of clinical symptoms. As multiple functionally interconnected molecular/cellular pathways appear disrupted in AD, the exploitation of high-throughput unbiased omics sciences is critical to elucidating the precise pathogenesis of AD. Among different omics, metabolomics is a fast-growing discipline allowing for the simultaneous detection and quantification of hundreds/thousands of perturbed metabolites in tissues or biofluids, reproducing the fluctuations of multiple networks affected by a disease. Here, we seek to critically depict the main metabolomics methodologies with the aim of identifying new potential AD biomarkers and further elucidating AD pathophysiological mechanisms. From a systems biology perspective, as metabolic alterations can occur before the development of clinical signs, metabolomics - coupled with existing accessible biomarkers used for AD screening and diagnosis - can support early disease diagnosis and help develop individualized treatment plans. Presently, the majority of metabolomic analyses emphasized that lipid metabolism is the most consistently altered pathway in AD pathogenesis. The possibility that metabolomics may reveal crucial steps in AD pathogenesis is undermined by the difficulty in discriminating between the causal or epiphenomenal or compensatory nature of metabolic findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Lista
- i+HeALTH Strategic Research Group, Department of Health Sciences, Miguel de Cervantes European University (UEMC), Valladolid, Spain.
| | - Raúl González-Domínguez
- Instituto de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica de Cádiz (INiBICA), Hospital Universitario Puerta del Mar, Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Susana López-Ortiz
- i+HeALTH Strategic Research Group, Department of Health Sciences, Miguel de Cervantes European University (UEMC), Valladolid, Spain
| | - Álvaro González-Domínguez
- Instituto de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica de Cádiz (INiBICA), Hospital Universitario Puerta del Mar, Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Héctor Menéndez
- i+HeALTH Strategic Research Group, Department of Health Sciences, Miguel de Cervantes European University (UEMC), Valladolid, Spain
| | - Juan Martín-Hernández
- i+HeALTH Strategic Research Group, Department of Health Sciences, Miguel de Cervantes European University (UEMC), Valladolid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lucia
- Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre ('imas12'), Madrid, Spain; Faculty of Sport Sciences, European University of Madrid, Villaviciosa de Odón, Madrid, Spain; CIBER of Frailty and Healthy Ageing (CIBERFES), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Diego Centonze
- Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy; Unit of Neurology, IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - Bruno P Imbimbo
- Department of Research and Development, Chiesi Farmaceutici, Parma, Italy
| | - Viviana Triaca
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC), National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | - Luana Lionetto
- Clinical Biochemistry, Mass Spectrometry Section, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Mental Health and Sensory Organs, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Simmaco
- Clinical Biochemistry, Mass Spectrometry Section, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Mental Health and Sensory Organs, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Miroslava Cuperlovic-Culf
- Digital Technologies Research Center, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Jericha Mill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lingjun Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Mark Mapstone
- Department of Neurology, Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Alejandro Santos-Lozano
- i+HeALTH Strategic Research Group, Department of Health Sciences, Miguel de Cervantes European University (UEMC), Valladolid, Spain; Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre ('imas12'), Madrid, Spain
| | - Robert Nisticò
- School of Pharmacy, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy; Laboratory of Pharmacology of Synaptic Plasticity, EBRI Rita Levi-Montalcini Foundation, Rome, Italy
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Xu Y, Pan X, Li H, Cao Q, Xu F, Zhang J. Accuracy of Raman spectroscopy in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1112615. [PMID: 37009107 PMCID: PMC10060832 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1112615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
ObjectiveTo systematically evaluate the accuracy of Raman spectroscopy in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease.MethodsDatabases including Web of Science, PubMed, The Cochrane Library, EMbase, CBM, CNKI, Wan Fang Data, and VIP were electronically searched for studies on Raman spectroscopy in diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease from inception to November 2022. Two reviewers independently screened the literature, extracted data, and assessed the risk of bias in the included studies. Then, meta-analysis was performed using Meta-Disc1.4 and Stata 16.0 software.ResultsA total of eight studies were finally included. The pooled sensitivity of Raman spectroscopy was 0.86 [95% CI (0.80–0.91)], specificity was 0.87 [95% CI (0.79–0.92)], positive likelihood ratio was 5.50 [95% CI (3.55–8.51)], negative likelihood ratio was 0.17 [95% CI (0.09–0.34)], diagnosis odds ratio and area under the curve of SROC were 42.44 [95% CI (19.80–90.97)] and 0.931, respectively. Sensitivity analysis was carried out after each study was excluded one by one, and the results showed that pooled sensitivity and specificity had no significant change, indicating that the stability of the meta-analysis results was great.ConclusionsOur findings indicated that Raman spectroscopy had high accuracy in the diagnosis of AD, though it still did not rule out the possibility of misdiagnosis and missed diagnosis. Limited by the quantity and quality of the included studies, the above conclusions need to be verified by more high-quality studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Xu
- General Practice Ward/International Medical Center Ward, General Practice Medical Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xinyu Pan
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Huan Li
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qiongfang Cao
- Department of Public Health, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Fan Xu
- Department of Public Health, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- *Correspondence: Fan Xu
| | - Jianshu Zhang
- General Practice Ward/International Medical Center Ward, General Practice Medical Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Jianshu Zhang
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Harris G, Rickard JJS, Butt G, Kelleher L, Blanch RJ, Cooper J, Oppenheimer PG. Review: Emerging Eye-Based Diagnostic Technologies for Traumatic Brain Injury. IEEE Rev Biomed Eng 2023; 16:530-559. [PMID: 35320105 PMCID: PMC9888755 DOI: 10.1109/rbme.2022.3161352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The study of ocular manifestations of neurodegenerative disorders, Oculomics, is a growing field of investigation for early diagnostics, enabling structural and chemical biomarkers to be monitored overtime to predict prognosis. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) triggers a cascade of events harmful to the brain, which can lead to neurodegeneration. TBI, termed the "silent epidemic" is becoming a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. There is currently no effective diagnostic tool for TBI, and yet, early-intervention is known to considerably shorten hospital stays, improve outcomes, fasten neurological recovery and lower mortality rates, highlighting the unmet need for techniques capable of rapid and accurate point-of-care diagnostics, implemented in the earliest stages. This review focuses on the latest advances in the main neuropathophysiological responses and the achievements and shortfalls of TBI diagnostic methods. Validated and emerging TBI-indicative biomarkers are outlined and linked to ocular neuro-disorders. Methods detecting structural and chemical ocular responses to TBI are categorised along with prospective chemical and physical sensing techniques. Particular attention is drawn to the potential of Raman spectroscopy as a non-invasive sensing of neurological molecular signatures in the ocular projections of the brain, laying the platform for the first tangible path towards alternative point-of-care diagnostic technologies for TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Harris
- School of Chemical Engineering, Advanced Nanomaterials Structures and Applications Laboratories, College of Engineering and Physical SciencesUniversity of BirminghamB15 2TTBirminghamU.K.
| | - Jonathan James Stanley Rickard
- School of Chemical Engineering, Advanced Nanomaterials Structures and Applications Laboratories, College of Engineering and Physical SciencesUniversity of BirminghamB15 2TTBirminghamU.K.
- Department of Physics, Cavendish LaboratoryUniversity of CambridgeCB3 0HECambridgeU.K.
| | - Gibran Butt
- Ophthalmology DepartmentUniversity Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation TrustB15 2THBirminghamU.K.
| | - Liam Kelleher
- School of Chemical Engineering, Advanced Nanomaterials Structures and Applications Laboratories, College of Engineering and Physical SciencesUniversity of BirminghamB15 2TTBirminghamU.K.
| | - Richard James Blanch
- Department of Military Surgery and TraumaRoyal Centre for Defence MedicineB15 2THBirminghamU.K.
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation TrustcBirminghamU.K.
| | - Jonathan Cooper
- School of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of GlasgowG12 8LTGlasgowU.K.
| | - Pola Goldberg Oppenheimer
- School of Chemical Engineering, Advanced Nanomaterials Structures and Applications Laboratories, College of Engineering and Physical SciencesUniversity of BirminghamB15 2TTBirminghamU.K.
- Healthcare Technologies Institute, Institute of Translational MedicineB15 2THBirminghamU.K.
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Li Z, Wu H, Ji Y, Shi Z, Liu S, Bao X, Shan P, Hu D, Li M. Toward Reagent-Free Discrimination of Alzheimer's Disease Using Blood Plasma Spectral Digital Biomarkers and Machine Learning. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 95:1175-1188. [PMID: 37661884 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease. The detection of early-stage AD is particularly desirable because it would allow early intervention. However, a minimally invasive, low-cost, and accurate discrimination or diagnostic method for AD is especially difficult in the earliest stage of AD. OBJECTIVE The aim of this research is to discover blood plasma spectral digital biomarkers of AD, develop a novel intelligent method for the discrimination of AD and accelerate the translation of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral-based disease discrimination methods from the laboratory to clinical practice. METHODS Since vibration spectroscopy can provide the structure and chemical composition information of biological samples at the molecular level, we investigated the potential of FTIR spectral biomarkers of blood plasma to differentiate between AD patients and healthy controls. Combined with machine learning technology, we designed a hierarchical discrimination system that provides reagent-free and accurate AD discrimination based on blood plasma spectral digital biomarkers of AD. RESULTS Accurate segregation between AD patients and healthy controls was achieved with 89.3% sensitivity and 85.7% specificity for early-stage AD patients, 92.8% sensitivity and 87.5% specificity for middle-stage AD patients, and 100% sensitivity and 100% specificity for late-stage AD patients. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that blood plasma spectral digital biomarkers hold great promise as discrimination markers of AD, indicating the potential for the development of an inexpensive, reagent-free, and less laborious clinical test. As a result, our research outcome will accelerate the clinical application of spectral digital biomarkers and machine learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Li
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Neurology, Tianjin Huanhu Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tianjin Dementia Institute, Tianjin, China
| | - Yong Ji
- Department of Neurology, Tianjin Huanhu Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tianjin Dementia Institute, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhihong Shi
- Department of Neurology, Tianjin Huanhu Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tianjin Dementia Institute, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuai Liu
- Department of Neurology, Tianjin Huanhu Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tianjin Dementia Institute, Tianjin, China
| | - Xinran Bao
- First Hospital of Qinhuangdao, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Peng Shan
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Dean Hu
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Precision Optical Sensing and Measurement Technology, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Meimei Li
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
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Fišar Z. Linking the Amyloid, Tau, and Mitochondrial Hypotheses of Alzheimer's Disease and Identifying Promising Drug Targets. Biomolecules 2022; 12:1676. [PMID: 36421690 PMCID: PMC9687482 DOI: 10.3390/biom12111676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Damage or loss of brain cells and impaired neurochemistry, neurogenesis, and synaptic and nonsynaptic plasticity of the brain lead to dementia in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Injury to synapses and neurons and accumulation of extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are considered the main morphological and neuropathological features of AD. Age, genetic and epigenetic factors, environmental stressors, and lifestyle contribute to the risk of AD onset and progression. These risk factors are associated with structural and functional changes in the brain, leading to cognitive decline. Biomarkers of AD reflect or cause specific changes in brain function, especially changes in pathways associated with neurotransmission, neuroinflammation, bioenergetics, apoptosis, and oxidative and nitrosative stress. Even in the initial stages, AD is associated with Aβ neurotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and tau neurotoxicity. The integrative amyloid-tau-mitochondrial hypothesis assumes that the primary cause of AD is the neurotoxicity of Aβ oligomers and tau oligomers, mitochondrial dysfunction, and their mutual synergy. For the development of new efficient AD drugs, targeting the elimination of neurotoxicity, mutual potentiation of effects, and unwanted protein interactions of risk factors and biomarkers (mainly Aβ oligomers, tau oligomers, and mitochondrial dysfunction) in the early stage of the disease seems promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Fišar
- Department of Psychiatry, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Ke Karlovu 11, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic
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Recent Advances in Understanding of Alzheimer's Disease Progression through Mass Spectrometry-Based Metabolomics. PHENOMICS (CHAM, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 2:1-17. [PMID: 35656096 PMCID: PMC9159642 DOI: 10.1007/s43657-021-00036-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia in the aging population, but despite extensive research, there is no consensus on the biological cause of AD. While AD research is dominated by protein/peptide-centric research based on the amyloid hypothesis, a theory that designates dysfunction in beta-amyloid production, accumulation, or disposal as the primary cause of AD, many studies focus on metabolomics as a means of understanding the biological processes behind AD progression. In this review, we discuss mass spectrometry (MS)-based AD metabolomics studies, including sample type and preparation, mass spectrometry specifications, and data analysis, as well as biological insights gleaned from these studies, with the hope of informing future AD metabolomic studies.
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Bogaerts J, Aerts R, Vermeyen T, Johannessen C, Herrebout W, Batista JM. Tackling Stereochemistry in Drug Molecules with Vibrational Optical Activity. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:877. [PMID: 34577577 PMCID: PMC8468215 DOI: 10.3390/ph14090877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chirality plays a crucial role in drug discovery and development. As a result, a significant number of commercially available drugs are structurally dissymmetric and enantiomerically pure. The determination of the exact 3D structure of drug candidates is, consequently, of paramount importance for the pharmaceutical industry in different stages of the discovery pipeline. Traditionally the assignment of the absolute configuration of druggable molecules has been carried out by means of X-ray crystallography. Nevertheless, not all molecules are suitable for single-crystal growing. Additionally, valuable information about the conformational dynamics of drug candidates is lost in the solid state. As an alternative, vibrational optical activity (VOA) methods have emerged as powerful tools to assess the stereochemistry of drug molecules directly in solution. These methods include vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) and Raman optical activity (ROA). Despite their potential, VCD and ROA are still unheard of to many organic and medicinal chemists. Therefore, the present review aims at highlighting the recent use of VOA methods for the assignment of the absolute configuration of chiral small-molecule drugs, as well as for the structural analysis of biologics of pharmaceutical interest. A brief introduction on VCD and ROA theory and the best experimental practices for using these methods will be provided along with selected representative examples over the last five years. As VCD and ROA are commonly used in combination with quantum calculations, some guidelines will also be presented for the reliable simulation of chiroptical spectra. Special attention will be paid to the complementarity of VCD and ROA to unambiguously assess the stereochemical properties of pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Bogaerts
- Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (R.A.); (T.V.); (C.J.); (W.H.)
| | - Roy Aerts
- Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (R.A.); (T.V.); (C.J.); (W.H.)
| | - Tom Vermeyen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (R.A.); (T.V.); (C.J.); (W.H.)
- Department of Chemistry, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christian Johannessen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (R.A.); (T.V.); (C.J.); (W.H.)
| | - Wouter Herrebout
- Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium; (J.B.); (R.A.); (T.V.); (C.J.); (W.H.)
| | - Joao M. Batista
- Institute of Science and Technology, Federal University of Sao Paulo, Sao Jose dos Campos 12231-280, SP, Brazil
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12
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Multimodal, label-free fluorescence and Raman imaging of amyloid deposits in snap-frozen Alzheimer's disease human brain tissue. Commun Biol 2021; 4:474. [PMID: 33859370 PMCID: PMC8050064 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-01981-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathology is characterized by hyperphosphorylated tau containing neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques. Normally these hallmarks are studied by (immuno-) histological techniques requiring chemical pretreatment and indirect labelling. Label-free imaging enables one to visualize normal tissue and pathology in its native form. Therefore, these techniques could contribute to a better understanding of the disease. Here, we present a comprehensive study of high-resolution fluorescence imaging (before and after staining) and spectroscopic modalities (Raman mapping under pre-resonance conditions and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)) of amyloid deposits in snap-frozen AD human brain tissue. We performed fluorescence and spectroscopic imaging and subsequent thioflavin-S staining of the same tissue slices to provide direct confirmation of plaque location and correlation of spectroscopic biomarkers with plaque morphology; differences were observed between cored and fibrillar plaques. The SRS results showed a protein peak shift towards the β-sheet structure in cored amyloid deposits. In the Raman maps recorded with 532 nm excitation we identified the presence of carotenoids as a unique marker to differentiate between a cored amyloid plaque area versus a non-plaque area without prior knowledge of their location. The observed presence of carotenoids suggests a distinct neuroinflammatory response to misfolded protein accumulations.
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13
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Hackshaw KV, Miller JS, Aykas DP, Rodriguez-Saona L. Vibrational Spectroscopy for Identification of Metabolites in Biologic Samples. Molecules 2020; 25:E4725. [PMID: 33076318 PMCID: PMC7587585 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25204725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrational spectroscopy (mid-infrared (IR) and Raman) and its fingerprinting capabilities offer rapid, high-throughput, and non-destructive analysis of a wide range of sample types producing a characteristic chemical "fingerprint" with a unique signature profile. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and an array of mass spectrometry (MS) techniques provide selectivity and specificity for screening metabolites, but demand costly instrumentation, complex sample pretreatment, are labor-intensive, require well-trained technicians to operate the instrumentation, and are less amenable for implementation in clinics. The potential for vibration spectroscopy techniques to be brought to the bedside gives hope for huge cost savings and potential revolutionary advances in diagnostics in the clinic. We discuss the utilization of current vibrational spectroscopy methodologies on biologic samples as an avenue towards rapid cost saving diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin V. Hackshaw
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas, 1601 Trinity St, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Joseph S. Miller
- Department of Medicine, Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Dublin, OH 43016, USA;
| | - Didem P. Aykas
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (D.P.A.); (L.R.-S.)
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Adnan Menderes University, Aydin 09100, Turkey
| | - Luis Rodriguez-Saona
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (D.P.A.); (L.R.-S.)
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14
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Molinski J, Tadimety A, Burklund A, Zhang JXJ. Scalable Signature-Based Molecular Diagnostics Through On-chip Biomarker Profiling Coupled with Machine Learning. Ann Biomed Eng 2020; 48:2377-2399. [PMID: 32816167 PMCID: PMC7785517 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-020-02593-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Molecular diagnostics have traditionally relied on discrete biological substances as diagnostic markers. In recent years however, advances in on-chip biomarker screening technologies and data analytics have enabled signature-based diagnostics. Such diagnostics aim to utilize unique combinations of multiple biomarkers or diagnostic 'fingerprints' rather than discrete analyte measurements. This approach has shown to improve both diagnostic accuracy and diagnostic specificity. In this review, signature-based diagnostics enabled by microfluidic and micro-/nano- technologies will be reviewed with a focus on device design and data analysis pipelines and methodologies. With increasing amounts of data available from microfluidic biomarker screening, isolation, and detection platforms, advanced data handling and analytics approaches can be employed. Thus, current data analysis approaches including machine learning and recent advances with image processing, along with potential future directions will be explored. Lastly, the needs and gaps in current literature will be elucidated to inform future efforts towards development of molecular diagnostics and biomarker screening technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Molinski
- Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Amogha Tadimety
- Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Alison Burklund
- Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - John X J Zhang
- Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth, 14 Engineering Drive, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA.
- Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA.
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15
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Coria‐Oriundo LL, Ceretti H, Roupioz Y, Battaglini F. Redox Polyelectrolyte Modified Gold Nanoparticles Enhance the Detection of Adenosine in an Electrochemical Split‐Aptamer Assay. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202002488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucy L. Coria‐Oriundo
- INQUIMAE (CONICET) Departamento de Química Inorgánica Analítica y Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Universidad de Buenos Aires Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2 C1428EHA Buenos Aires Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Av. Túpac Amaru 210 Lima 25, Perú
| | - Helena Ceretti
- Universidad Nacional de Gral. Sarmiento, J. M. Gutiérrez 1150 B1613GSX, Los Polvorines, Prov. de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Yoann Roupioz
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes CNRS CEA SyMMES 38000 Grenoble France
| | - Fernando Battaglini
- INQUIMAE (CONICET) Departamento de Química Inorgánica Analítica y Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Universidad de Buenos Aires Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2 C1428EHA Buenos Aires Argentina
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16
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Niedzwiecki MM, Walker DI, Howell JC, Watts KD, Jones DP, Miller GW, Hu WT. High-resolution metabolomic profiling of Alzheimer's disease in plasma. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2019; 7:36-45. [PMID: 31828981 PMCID: PMC6952314 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.50956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a complex neurological disorder with contributions from genetic and environmental factors. High‐resolution metabolomics (HRM) has the potential to identify novel endogenous and environmental factors involved in AD. Previous metabolomics studies have identified circulating metabolites linked to AD, but lack of replication and inconsistent diagnostic algorithms have hindered the generalizability of these findings. Here we applied HRM to identify plasma metabolic and environmental factors associated with AD in two study samples, with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers of AD incorporated to achieve high diagnostic accuracy. Methods Liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry (LC–MS)‐based HRM was used to identify plasma and CSF metabolites associated with AD diagnosis and CSF AD biomarkers in two studies of prevalent AD (Study 1: 43 AD cases, 45 mild cognitive impairment [MCI] cases, 41 controls; Study 2: 50 AD cases, 18 controls). AD‐associated metabolites were identified using a metabolome‐wide association study (MWAS) framework. Results An MWAS meta‐analysis identified three non‐medication AD‐associated metabolites in plasma, including elevated levels of glutamine and an unknown halogenated compound and lower levels of piperine, a dietary alkaloid. The non‐medication metabolites were correlated with CSF AD biomarkers, and glutamine and the unknown halogenated compound were also detected in CSF. Furthermore, in Study 1, the unknown compound and piperine were altered in MCI patients in the same direction as AD dementia. Conclusions In plasma, AD was reproducibly associated with elevated levels of glutamine and a halogen‐containing compound and reduced levels of piperine. These findings provide further evidence that exposures and behavior may modify AD risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M Niedzwiecki
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Douglas I Walker
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York.,Clinical Biomarkers Laboratory, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Kelly D Watts
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Dean P Jones
- Clinical Biomarkers Laboratory, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Gary W Miller
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Department of Pharmacology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - William T Hu
- Department of Neurology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.,Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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17
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Hrubešová K, Fousková M, Habartová L, Fišar Z, Jirák R, Raboch J, Setnička V. Search for biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease: Recent insights, current challenges and future prospects. Clin Biochem 2019; 72:39-51. [PMID: 30953619 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Due to the trend of prolonged lifespan leading to higher incidence of age-related diseases, the demand for reliable biomarkers of dementia rises. In this review, we present novel biomarkers of high potential, especially those found in blood, urine or saliva, which could lead to a more comfortable patient experience and better time- and cost-effectivity, compared to the currently used diagnostic methods. We focus on biomarkers that might allow for the detection of Alzheimer's disease before its clinical manifestations. Such biomarkers might be helpful for better understanding the etiology of the disease and identifying its risk factors. Moreover, it could be a base for developing new treatment or at least help to prolong the presymptomatic stage in patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease. As potential candidates, we present, for instance, neurofilament light in both cerebrospinal fluid and blood plasma or amyloid β in plasma. Above all, we provide an overview of different approaches to the diagnostics, analyzing patient's biofluids as a whole using molecular spectroscopy. Infrared and Raman spectroscopy and especially chiroptical methods provide information not only on the chemical composition, but also on molecular structure. Therefore, these techniques are promising for the diagnostics of Alzheimer's disease, as the accumulation of amyloid β in abnormal conformation is one of the hallmarks of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Hrubešová
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Fousková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Habartová
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Fišar
- Department of Psychiatry, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Ke Karlovu 11, 120 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Jirák
- Department of Psychiatry, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Ke Karlovu 11, 120 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Raboch
- Department of Psychiatry, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Ke Karlovu 11, 120 00 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Setnička
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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