Geographic variation of chronic opioid use in fibromyalgia

Opioids and fibromyalgia: frequency of use and factors associated with increased consumption in patients remitted to a tertiary care center

BACKGROUND

Opioids are not recommended for fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the frequency of opioid use in a large cohort of fibromyalgia patients and to identify factors associated with opioid consumption.

METHODS

A retrospective, observational study of a large fibromyalgia cohort in a tertiary care center. We assessed fibromyalgia severity, functional capacity, anxiety, depression, drugs consumption and the patient's impression of change. We compared strong opioid consumers (SOC) and non-SOC. Inferential statistical and logistic regression analysis were used to identify factors associated with opioid consumption, and ANOVA for repeated measurements.

RESULTS

We found a prevalence of 9.2% of SOC (100 patients) among 1087 patients in the cohort. During the last four years there was a significant increase on the incidence of SOC up to 12.8% (p = 0.004). There were no differences in demographic variables between SOC and non-SOC. Clinical variables were significantly more severe in SOC, and they consumed more non-opioid drugs (p < 0.0001). Opioid consumption was independently associated with other non-opioid drugs (Odds ratio 1.25, CI: 1.13-1.38), but not with the fibromyalgia severity. At three months, 62% of the patients had opioid withdrawal. There were no statistical differences in the fibromyalgia severity at the initial evaluation, or the patient's impression of change compared with those patients who continued opioids. Coping strategies were better in those patients who withdrew opioids (p = 0.044).

CONCLUSIONS

We observed an increase in opioid prescriptions during the last four years. Opioid consumption was associated with concomitant use of non-opioid drugs, but it was not associated with fibromyalgia severity.

Temporal associations between use of psychoactive substances and somatic symptoms in the daily lives of people with fibromyalgia

OBJECTIVE

Consumption of psychoactive substances-alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, opioids, and cannabis-is common among people with fibromyalgia. Associations between the use of substances and somatic symptoms could reflect efforts to cope with symptoms, aggravation or alleviation of symptoms after the use of substances, or a combination of these. To date, no study has provided insight into temporal associations between the consumption of psychoactive substances and fluctuations in somatic symptoms. We explored whether changes in ratings of pain and fatigue (mental and physical) predicted the later use of psychoactive substances or vice versa (substance use predicting later change in symptoms).

DESIGN

Micro-longitudinal design.

SETTING/SUBJECTS

Fifty adults (88% female, 86% White, mean age of 44.9 years) with fibromyalgia.

METHODS

Participants completed ecological momentary assessments of substance use, pain intensity, and physical/mental fatigue 5 times per day for 8 days.

RESULTS

Results of multilevel models indicated that momentary increases in fatigue showed a consistent association with greater odds of later use of psychoactive substances, whereas momentary increases in pain were related to lower odds of later cannabis and nicotine use and higher odds of later alcohol use. Only nicotine use predicted later mental fatigue.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight the importance of individualized interventions for symptom management or problems related to the use of psychoactive substances. We observed that although somatic symptoms predicted later use of substances, use of substances did not show appreciable effects with regard to alleviating somatic symptoms in people with fibromyalgia.

Feasibility and validity of using healthcare databases to conduct cross-national comparative studies of opioid use, its determinants and consequences

PURPOSE

A cross-national comparative (CNC) study about opioid utilization would allow the identification of strategies to improve pain management and mitigate risk. However, little is known about the accessibility and validity of information in healthcare databases internationally. This study aimed to identify the feasibility of using healthcare databases to conduct a CNC study of opioid utilization and its associated consequences.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was launched in March 2018, including experts interested in CNC studies comparing opioid utilization by purposeful sampling. An electronic survey was used to collect database characteristics, medicine information, and linkage information of each aggregate-level dataset (AD) and individual patient-level dataset (IPD).

RESULTS

Overall, participants from 21 geographical regions reported 18 ADs and 19 IPDs. Information on dispensed medications is available from 17 ADs and 17 IPDs. Of the 16 ADs that include primary care settings, only 9 ADs can obtain information from secondary care settings. Fourteen IPDs included patients' characteristics or could be retrieved from linkage databases. Although most ADs are publicly accessible (n = 13), only five IPDs can be accessed without extra cost.

CONCLUSION

Most ADs could be used to report opioid utilization in a primary care setting. IPDs with linkage databases should be applied to identify potential determinants, clinical outcomes, and policy impact. Data access restrictions and governance policies across jurisdictions can be challenging for timely analysis and require further collaboration.

Latent Class Analysis of Prescribing Behavior of Primary Care Physicians in the Veterans Health Administration

BACKGROUND

Benzodiazepines, opioids, proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), and antibiotics are frequently prescribed inappropriately by primary care physicians (PCPs), without sufficient consideration of alternative options or adverse effects. We hypothesized that distinct groups of PCPs could be identified based on their propensity to prescribe these medications.

OBJECTIVE

To identify PCP groups based on their propensity to prescribe benzodiazepines, opioids, PPIs, and antibiotics, and patient and PCP characteristics associated with identified prescribing patterns.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study using VA data and latent class regression analyses to identify prescribing patterns among PCPs and examine the association of patient and PCP characteristics with class membership.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 2524 full-time PCPs and their patient panels (n = 2,939,636 patients), from January 1, 2017, to December 31, 2018.

MAIN MEASURES

We categorized PCPs based on prescribing volume quartiles for the four drug classes, based on total days' supply dispensed of each medication by the PCP to their patients (expressed as days' supply per 1000 panel patient-days). We used latent class analysis to group PCPs based on prescribing and used multinomial logistic regression to examine patient and PCP characteristics associated with latent class membership.

KEY RESULTS

PCPs were categorized into four groups (latent classes): low intensity (23% of cohort), medium-intensity overall/high-intensity PPI (36%), medium-intensity overall/high-intensity opioid (20%), and high intensity (21%). PCPs in the high-intensity group were predominantly in the highest quartile of prescribers for all four drugs (68% in the highest quartile for benzodiazepine, 86% opioids, 64% PPIs, 62% antibiotics). High-intensity PCPs (vs. low intensity) were substantially less likely to be female (OR: 0.30, 95% CI: 0.21-0.42) or practice in the northeast versus other census regions (OR: 0.10, 95% CI: 0.06-0.17).

CONCLUSIONS

VA PCPs can be classified into four clearly differentiated groups based on their prescribing of benzodiazepines, opioids, PPIs, and antibiotics, suggesting an underlying typology of prescribing. High-intensity PCPs were more likely to be male.

Regional variation in longitudinal trajectories of primary care opioids prescribing across Health Boards in Scotland: a population-based study

BACKGROUND

This study aims to describe the longitudinal trajectory of opioid prescribing at the practice level and assess associated factors, including Health Boards and socioeconomic status.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This drug utilization research used practice-level dispensing data from 2016 to 2018. Practice-level prescription opioids dispensed were quantified by the defined daily doses (DDDs) per 1000 registrants. Group-based trajectory models were used to identify groups of practices with similar trajectories based on the difference in monthly opioid utilization. Characteristics of registrants were associated with the trajectory by a conditional logistic regression and the prescription opioids dispensed by a random-effect regression model.

RESULTS

Of the 798 practices, 29.5% increased opioid prescription by an additional 100 DDDs/1000 registrants/month during 2017 and 2018. Practice in southwest Scotland tended to be categorized into the group with increasing opioid utilization. Deprived socioeconomic status was associated with increasing opioid utilization (odds ratio: 2.2; 95% confidence interval: 1.5, 3.2) or higher annual opioid utilization (coefficient: 358.2; 95% confidence interval: 327.6, 388.8).

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing opioid utilization over time was related to deprived socioeconomic status associated with chronic pain conditions and inequality in pain services. Further strategies to balance inequality are needed, which needs further investigation.

The Influence of Opioids on Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation Effects in Women With Fibromyalgia

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) uses endogenous opioids to produce analgesia, and effectiveness can be reduced in opioid-tolerant individuals'. We examined TENS effectiveness (primary aim), and differences in fibromyalgia symptoms (secondary aim), in women with fibromyalgia regularly taking opioid (RTO) medications compared with women not- regularly taking opioids (not-RTO). Women (RTO n = 79; not-RTO not-n = 222) with fibromyalgia with daily pain levels ≥4 were enrolled and categorized into RTO (taking opioids at least 5 of 7 days in last 30 days) or not-RTO groups. Participants were categorized into tramadol n = 52 (65.8%) and other opioids n = 27 (34.2%) for the RTO group. Participants were phenotyped across multiple domains including demographics, fibromyalgia characteristics pain, fatigue, sleep, psychosocial factors, and activity. Participants were randomized to active TENS (n = 101), placebo TENS (n = 99), or no TENS (n = 99) for 1-month with randomization stratified by opioid use. Active TENS was equally effective in movement-evoked pain in those in the RTO and not-RTO groups. Women with fibromyalgia in the RTO group were older (P = .002), lower-income (P = .035), more likely to smoke (P = .014), and more likely to report depression (P = .013), hypertension (P = .005) or osteoarthritis (P = .027). The RTO group demonstrated greater bodily pain on SF-36 (P = .005), lower quality of life on the physical health component of the SF-36 (P = .040), and greater fatigue (MAF-ADL P = .047; fatigue with sit to stand test (P = .047) These differences were small of and unclear clinical significance. In summary, regular use of opioid analgesics does not interfere with the effectiveness of TENS for movement-evoked pain. Clinical Trial Registration Number: NCT01888640. PERSPECTIVE: Individuals treated with mixed frequency TENS at a strong but comfortable intensity that was taking prescription opioid analgesics showed a significant reduction in movement-evoked pain and fatigue. These data support the use of TENS, using appropriate parameters of stimulation, as an intervention for individuals with fibromyalgia taking opioid analgesics.

Opioids and Gabapentinoids Utilisation and Their Related-Mortality Trends in the United Kingdom Primary Care Setting, 2010-2019: A Cross-National, Population-Based Comparison Study

Background: There is growing concern over the increasing utilisation trends of opioids and gabapentinoids across but there is lack of data assessing and comparing the utilisation trends across the four United Kingdom countries. We assessed/compared opioids and gabapentinoids utilisation trends across the four United Kingdom countries then evaluated the correlation between their utilisation with related mortality.

Methods: This repeated cross-national study used Prescription Cost Analysis (PCA) datasets (2010–2019). Opioids and gabapentinoids utilisation were measured using number of items dispensed/1,000 inhabitants and defined daily doses (DDDs)/1,000 inhabitant/day. Number of Opioids and gabapentinoids-related mortality were extracted from the United Kingdom Office for National Statistics (2010–2018). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics including linear trend analysis; correlation between the Opioids and gabapentinoids utilisation and their related mortality using Pearson correlation coefficient.

Results: The results illustrated an overall significant increasing trend in the utilisation of opioids (12.5–14%) and gabapentinoids (205–207%) with substantial variations among the four United Kingdom countries. For opioids, Scotland had the highest level of number of items dispensed/1,000 inhabitant (156.6% higher compared to the lowest level in England), whereas in terms of DDD/1,000 inhabitant/day, NI had the highest level. Utilisation trends increased significantly across the four countries ranging from 7.7% in Scotland to 20.5% in NI (p < 0.001). Similarly, for gabapentinoids, there were significant increasing trends ranging from 126.5 to 114.9% in NI to 285.8–299.6% in Wales (p < 0.001) for number of items/1,000 inhabitants and DDD/1,000 inhabitant/day, respectively. Although the utilisation trends levelled off after 2016, this was not translated into comparable reduction in opioids and gabapentinoids-related mortality as the latter continued to increase with the highest level in Scotland (3.5 times more deaths in 2018 compared to England- 280.1 vs. 79.3 deaths/million inhabitants). There were significant moderate-strong positive correlations between opioids and gabapentinoids utilisation trends and their related mortality.

Conclusion: The utilisation trends of opioids and gabapentinoids have increased significantly with substantial variations among the four United Kingdom countries. This coincided with significant increase in their related mortality. Our findings support the call for immediate actions including radical changes in official United Kingdom policies on drug use and effective strategies to promote best clinical practice in opioids and gabapentinoids prescribing.

Opioid Use in Fibromyalgia Continues Despite Guidelines That Do Not Support Its Efficacy or Risk

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

The aim of this cross-sectional study is to determine the prevalence of opioid use in a large sample of fibromyalgia (FM) patients and examine the factors associated with opioid prescription/use despite multiple clinical guidelines that do not recommend opioid use in this population.

METHODS

Data were collected from a convenience sample of 698 patients admitted from August 2017 to May 2019 into an intensive 2-day Fibromyalgia Treatment Program at a tertiary medical center in the United States after FM diagnosis. Patients were administered the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire-Revised, the Center for Epidemiologic Study of Depression Scale, and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale upon admission to the program. Demographic information and opioid use were self-reported. Logistic regression analysis was utilized to determine associations between patient-related variables and opioid use in this prospective study.

RESULTS

Of 698 patients, 27.1% (n = 189) were taking opioids at intake. Extended duration of symptoms (>3 years), increased age, higher degree of functional impairment, and increased pain catastrophizing were significantly associated with opioid use.

CONCLUSIONS

Opioids are not recommended for the treatment of FM under current guidelines. Greater burden of illness appeared to be associated with the prescription and use of opioids in this population. These findings suggest that some providers may not be aware of current recommendations that have been found to be effective in the management of FM that are contained in guidelines. Alternative approaches to the management of FM that do not involve opioids are reviewed in an effort to improve care.

The Prevalence of Opioid Analgesic Use in People with Chronic Noncancer Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

OBJECTIVE

To review studies examining the proportion of people with chronic noncancer pain who report consuming opioids and characteristics associated with their use.

DESIGN

Systematic review.

METHODS

We searched databases from inception to February 8, 2020, and conducted citation tracking. We included observational studies reporting the proportion of adults with chronic noncancer pain who used opioid analgesics. Opioids were categorized as weak (e.g., codeine) or strong (e.g., oxycodone). Study risk of bias was assessed, and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluations provided a summary of the overall quality. Results were pooled using a random-effects model. Meta-regression determined factors associated with opioid use.

RESULTS

Sixty studies (N=3,961,739) reported data on opioid use in people with chronic noncancer pain from 1990 to 2017. Of these 46, 77% had moderate risk of bias. Opioid use was reported by 26.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 23.1-30.8; moderate-quality evidence) of people with chronic noncancer pain. The use of weak opioids (17.3%; 95% CI 11.9-24.4; moderate-quality evidence) was more common than the use of strong opioids (9.8%; 95% CI, 6.8-14.0; low-quality evidence). Meta-regression determined that opioid use was associated with geographic region (P=0.02; lower in Europe than North America), but not sampling year (P=0.77), setting (P=0.06), diagnosis (P=0.34), or disclosure of funding (P=0.77).

CONCLUSIONS

Our review summarized data from over 3.9 million people with chronic noncancer pain reporting their opioid use. Between 1990 and 2017, one-quarter of people with chronic noncancer pain reported taking opioids, and this proportion did not change over time.

Variations in Long-term Opioid Therapy Definitions: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies Using Routinely Collected Data (2000-2019)

Routinely collected data have been increasingly used to assess long-term opioid therapy (LTOT) patterns, with very little guidance on how to measure LTOT from these data sources. We conducted a systematic review of studies published between January 2000 and July 2019 to catalogue LTOT definitions, the rationale for definitions and LTOT rates in observational research using routinely collected data in nonsurgical settings. We screened 4056 abstracts, 210 full-text manuscripts and included 128 studies, mostly from the United States (81%) and published between 2015 and 2019 (69%). We identified 78 definitions of LTOT, commonly operationalised as 90 days of use within a year (23%). Studies often used multiple criteria to derive definitions (60%), mostly based on measures of duration, such as supply days/days of use (66%), episode length (21%) or prescription fills within specified time periods (12%). Definitions were based on previous publications (63%), clinical judgment (16%) or empirical data (3%); 10% of studies applied more than one definition. LTOT definition was not provided with enough details for replication in 14 studies and 38 studies did not specify the opioids evaluated. Rates of LTOT within study populations ranged from 0.2% to 57% according to study design and definition used. We observed a substantial rise in the last 5 years in studies evaluating LTOT with large variability in the definitions used and poor reporting of the rationale and implementation of definitions. This variation impacts on research reproducibility, comparability of findings and the development of strategies aiming to curb therapy that is not guideline-recommended.

Chronic Opioid Therapy: A Scoping Literature Review on Evolving Clinical and Scientific Definitions

The management of chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) with chronic opioid therapy (COT) is controversial. There is a lack of consensus on how COT is defined resulting in unclear clinical guidance. This scoping review identifies and evaluates evolving COT definitions throughout the published clinical and scientific literature. Databases searched included PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. A total of 227 studies were identified from 8,866 studies published between January 2000 and July 2019. COT definitions were classified by pain population of application and specific dosage/duration definition parameters, with results reported according to PRISMA-ScR. Approximately half of studies defined COT as "days' supply duration >90 days" and 9.3% defined as ">120 days' supply," with other days' supply cut-off points (>30, >60, or >70) each appearing in <5% of total studies. COT was defined by number of prescriptions in 63 studies, with 16.3% and 11.0% using number of initiations or refills, respectively. Few studies explicitly distinguished acute treatment and COT. Episode duration/dosage criteria was used in 90 studies, with 7.5% by Morphine Milligram Equivalents + days' supply and 32.2% by other "episode" combination definitions. COT definitions were applied in musculoskeletal CNCP (60.8%) most often, and typically in adults aged 18 to 64 (69.6%). The usage of ">90 days' supply" COT definitions increased from 3.2 publications/year before 2016 to 20.7 publications/year after 2016. An increasing proportion of studies define COT as ">90 days' supply." The most recent literature trends toward shorter duration criteria, suggesting that contemporary COT definitions are increasingly conservative. PERSPECTIVE: This study summarized the most common, current definition criteria for chronic opioid therapy (COT) and recommends adoption of consistent definition criteria to be utilized in practice and research. The most recent literature trends toward shorter duration criteria overall, suggesting that COT definition criteria are increasingly stringent.

Efficacy and safety of mirogabalin for the treatment of fibromyalgia: results from three 13-week randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled, parallel-group studies and a 52-week open-label extension study

Objective: To investigate the efficacy and safety of mirogabalin, an α₂δ ligand, in patients with fibromyalgia (FM). Methods: In three 13-week, multicenter, double-blind, phase 3 studies (studies A, B, and C), patients with FM (n = 1293, 1270, and 1301, respectively) were randomized (1:1:1:1) to placebo, pregabalin 150 mg twice daily, mirogabalin 15 mg once daily or mirogabalin 15 mg twice daily. The primary endpoint was the change in weekly average daily worst pain score (ADPS) at week 13. Key secondary endpoints included Patient Global Impression of Change and change in the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire total score. Long-term safety of mirogabalin was assessed in a 52-week extension study. Results: Neither mirogabalin dose demonstrated a significant ADPS reduction from baseline vs. placebo at week 13 in any of the three studies. Pregabalin significantly reduced ADPS from baseline vs. placebo in studies B and C (p = .0008 and .0001, respectively). The effect of mirogabalin compared with placebo on key secondary endpoints was variable across the studies. Mirogabalin was well tolerated by most patients in the phase 3 studies; no unexpected adverse events occurring during the 52-week extension study. Conclusion: While both mirogabalin doses were well tolerated by most patients and showed potential for reducing pain associated with FM, the primary endpoint of significant pain reduction in patients on mirogabalin compared with placebo was not achieved in any of the three randomized controlled studies. Clinical trial registration: NCT02146430; NCT02187159; NCT02187471; and NCT02234583 (extension study).

The opioid epidemic: helping rheumatologists prevent a crisis

An endemic increase in the number of deaths attributable to prescribed opioids is found in all developed countries. In 2016 in the USA, more than 46 people died each day from overdoses involving prescription opioids. European data show that the number of patients receiving strong opioids is increasing. In addition, there is an upsurge in hospitalisations for opioid intoxication, opioid abuse and deaths in some European countries. This class of analgesic is increasingly used in many rheumatological pathologies. Cohort studies, in various chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) (osteoarthritis, chronic low back pain, rheumatoid arthritis, etc), show that between 2% and 8% of patients are treated with strong opioids. In order to help rheumatologists prescribe strong opioids under optimal conditions and to prevent the risk of death, abuse and misuse, recommendations have recently been published (in France in 2016, the recommendations of the French Society of Study and Treatment of Pain, in 2017, the European recommendations of the European Federation of IASP Chapters and the American Society of International Pain Physicians). They agree on the same general principles: opioids may be of interest in situations of CNCP, but their prescription must follow essential rules. It is necessary to make an accurate assessment of the pain and its origin, to formulate therapeutic objectives (pain, function and/or quality of life), to evaluate beforehand the risk of abuse and to get a specialised opinion beyond a certain dose or duration of prescription.

Prescription opioids: Regional variation and socioeconomic status - evidence from primary care in England

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to quantify opioid prescriptions dispensed from primary care practices throughout England and investigate its association with socioeconomic status (SES).

METHODS

This cross-sectional study used publicly available data in 2015, including practice-level dispensing data and characteristics of registrants from the United Kingdom (UK) National Health Service Digital, and Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) data from Department of Communities and Local Government. Practices in England which issued opioid prescriptions that could be assigned a defined daily dose (DDD) in the claim-based dispensing database were included. The total amount of opioid prescriptions dispensed (DDD/1000 registrants/day) was calculated for each practice. The association between dispensed opioid prescriptions and IMD was analyzed by multi-level regression and adjusted for registrants' characteristics and the clustered effect of Clinical Commissioning Groups. Subgroup analysis was conducted for practices in London, Birmingham, Manchester and Newcastle.

RESULTS

Of the 7856 included practices in England, the median and interquartile range (IQR) of prescription opioids dispensed was 36.9 (IQR: 23.1, 52.5) DDD/1000 registrants/day. The median opioid utilization (DDD/1000 registrants/day) amongst practices varied between Manchester (53.1; IQR: 36.8, 71.4), Newcastle (48.9; IQR: 38.8, 60.1), Birmingham (35.3; IQR: 23.1, 49.4) and London (13.9; IQR: 8.1, 18.8). Lower SES, increased prevalence of patients aged more than 65 years, female gender, smoking, obesity and depression were significantly associated with increased opioid prescriptions. For every decrease in IMD decile (lower SES), there was a significant increase of opioid utilization by 1.0 (95% confidence interval: 0.89, 1.2, P < 0.001) DDD/1000 registrants/day.

CONCLUSION

There was substantial variation in opioid prescriptions among practices from Northern and Eastern England to Southern England. A significant association between increased opioid prescriptions and greater deprivation at a population level was observed. Further longitudinal studies using individual patient data are needed to validate this association and identify the potential mechanisms.

Prescription opioid dispensing in New South Wales, Australia: spatial and temporal variation

Background

Patterns of opioid dispensing often exhibit substantial temporal and geographical variability, which has implications for public health policy decisions and interventions. The study examined recent trends in prescription opioid dispensing and identified high dispensing areas and factors associated with the doses dispensed.

Methods

Three years (1 January 2013–31 December 2015) of dispensing data of prescription opioids in local government areas (LGAs) for New South Wales (NSW), Australia’s most populous state, were analyzed. The proportion of individuals who were dispensed opioids was computed for four age-groups. A Chi-square test was used to examine trends over time in proportions of the population who were dispensed opioids in four age-groups. The number of prescriptions over time and quantities in daily defined dose/1000 people/day (denoted DDD) were also examined. LGAs with relatively high levels of dispensing were identified and mapped. A multivariate regression model was used to identify factors associated with DDD.

Results

Overall, codeine, oxycodone and tramadol were the main opioids in terms of DDD, number of prescriptions and number of individuals who were dispensed these medications. Quantity (in DDD), and population dispensed to were consistently higher for women than men over time. Proportions of individuals who were dispensed opioids increased significantly over time in all four age-groups. In the multivariate model, age, urbanization, sex and socio-economic indexes for areas were significantly associated with doses dispensed among opioid users. All areas with very high dispensing were outside major metropolitan areas.

Conclusions

Given that over-use of opioids is a major public health problem and that long-term use has substantial side effects including dependence, it is important to understand spatial patterns of opioid prescribing to enable targeted interventions. Nationwide implementation of real-time drug-monitoring programs and access to monitoring databases from both doctor and pharmacy point-of-care sources may potentially reduce excessive and undue use of opioid.

Association of Chronic Opioid Use With Presidential Voting Patterns in US Counties in 2016

IMPORTANCE

The causes of the opioid epidemic are incompletely understood.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the overlap between the geographic distribution of US counties with high opioid use and the vote for the Republican candidate in the 2016 presidential election.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A cross-sectional analysis to explore the extent to which individual- and county-level demographic and economic measures explain the association of opioid use with the 2016 presidential vote at the county level, using rate of prescriptions for at least a 90-day supply of opioids in 2015. Medicare Part D enrollees (N = 3 764 361) constituting a 20% national sample were included.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Chronic opioid use was measured by county rate of receiving a 90-day or greater supply of opioids prescribed in 2015.

RESULTS

Of the 3 764 361 Medicare Part D enrollees in the 20% sample, 679 314 (18.0%) were younger than 65 years, 2 283 007 (60.6%) were female, 3 053 688 (81.1%) were non-Hispanic white, 351 985 (9.3%) were non-Hispanic black, and 198 778 (5.3%) were Hispanic. In a multilevel analysis including county and enrollee, the county of residence explained 9.2% of an enrollee's odds of receiving prolonged opioids after adjusting for individual enrollee characteristics. The correlation between a county's Republican presidential vote and the adjusted rate of Medicare Part D recipients receiving prescriptions for prolonged opioid use was 0.42 (P < .001). In the 693 counties with adjusted rates of opioid prescription significantly higher than the mean county rate, the mean (SE) Republican presidential vote was 59.96% (1.73%), vs 38.67% (1.15%) in the 638 counties with significantly lower rates. Adjusting for county-level socioeconomic measures in linear regression models explained approximately two-thirds of the association of opioid rates and presidential voting rates.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Support for the Republican candidate in the 2016 election is a marker for physical conditions, economic circumstances, and cultural forces associated with opioid use. The commonly used socioeconomic indicators do not totally capture all of those forces.

Effect of tai chi versus aerobic exercise for fibromyalgia: comparative effectiveness randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effectiveness of tai chi interventions compared with aerobic exercise, a current core standard treatment in patients with fibromyalgia, and to test whether the effectiveness of tai chi depends on its dosage or duration.

DESIGN

Prospective, randomized, 52 week, single blind comparative effectiveness trial.

SETTING

Urban tertiary care academic hospital in the United States between March 2012 and September 2016.

PARTICIPANTS

226 adults with fibromyalgia (as defined by the American College of Rheumatology 1990 and 2010 criteria) were included in the intention to treat analyses: 151 were assigned to one of four tai chi groups and 75 to an aerobic exercise group.

INTERVENTIONS

Participants were randomly assigned to either supervised aerobic exercise (24 weeks, twice weekly) or one of four classic Yang style supervised tai chi interventions (12 or 24 weeks, once or twice weekly). Participants were followed for 52 weeks. Adherence was rigorously encouraged in person and by telephone.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was change in the revised fibromyalgia impact questionnaire (FIQR) scores at 24 weeks compared with baseline. Secondary outcomes included changes of scores in patient's global assessment, anxiety, depression, self efficacy, coping strategies, physical functional performance, functional limitation, sleep, and health related quality of life.

RESULTS

FIQR scores improved in all five treatment groups, but the combined tai chi groups improved statistically significantly more than the aerobic exercise group in FIQR scores at 24 weeks (difference between groups=5.5 points, 95% confidence interval 0.6 to 10.4, P=0.03) and several secondary outcomes (patient's global assessment=0.9 points, 0.3 to 1.4, P=0.005; anxiety=1.2 points, 0.3 to 2.1, P=0.006; self efficacy=1.0 points, 0.5 to 1.6, P=0.0004; and coping strategies, 2.6 points, 0.8 to 4.3, P=0.005). Tai chi treatment compared with aerobic exercise administered with the same intensity and duration (24 weeks, twice weekly) had greater benefit (between group difference in FIQR scores=16.2 points, 8.7 to 23.6, P<0.001). The groups who received tai chi for 24 weeks showed greater improvements than those who received it for 12 weeks (difference in FIQR scores=9.6 points, 2.6 to 16.6, P=0.007). There was no significant increase in benefit for groups who received tai chi twice weekly compared with once weekly. Participants attended the tai chi training sessions more often than participants attended aerobic exercise. The effects of tai chi were consistent across all instructors. No serious adverse events related to the interventions were reported.

CONCLUSION

Tai chi mind-body treatment results in similar or greater improvement in symptoms than aerobic exercise, the current most commonly prescribed non-drug treatment, for a variety of outcomes for patients with fibromyalgia. Longer duration of tai chi showed greater improvement. This mind-body approach may be considered a therapeutic option in the multidisciplinary management of fibromyalgia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01420640.

Opioid Prescribing by Nurse Practitioners in Medicare Part D: Impact of State Scope of Practice Legislation

Many state legislatures restrict nurse practitioner (NP) scope of practice as a way of addressing patient safety concerns. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of state NP scope of practice laws on the prescription of oxycodone and hydrocodone containing medications by NP and MD/DO/PA prescribers to Medicare Part D beneficiaries. Using the Medicare Part D public use file, we analyzed oxycodone and hydrocodone containing prescriptions per Medicare Part D beneficiary by prescriber type, NP state scope of practice, and geographic variables. Our results demonstrate that the state scope of practice variable had the same effect, in identical direction and significance, on NP opioid prescribing patterns as it had on MD/DO/PA prescribers, a group to whom NP scope of practice laws do not apply. Thus, scope of practice in this study was not an exclusive predictor of NP practice and prescribing.

Management of fibromyalgia syndrome in 2016

Fibromyalgia syndrome is a chronic pain disorder and defies definitively efficacious therapy. In this review, we summarize the results from the early treatment research as well as recent research evaluating the pharmacological, interventional and nonpharmacological therapies. We further discuss future directions of fibromyalgia syndrome management; we specifically focus on the issues that are associated with currently available treatments, such as the need for personalized approach, new technologically oriented and interventional treatments, the importance of understanding and harnessing placebo effects and enhancement of patient engagement in therapy.

Opioid Use in Fibromyalgia: A Cautionary Tale

Multiple pharmacotherapies are available for the treatment of fibromyalgia (FM), including opioid analgesics. We postulate that the mechanism of action of traditional opioids predicts their lack of efficacy in FM. Literature searches of the MEDLINE and Cochrane Library databases were conducted using the search term opioid AND fibromyalgia to identify relevant articles, with no date limitations set. Citation lists in returned articles and personal archives of references were also examined for additional relevant items, and articles were selected based on the expert opinions of the authors. We found no evidence from clinical trials that opioids are effective for the treatment of FM. Observational studies have found that patients with FM receiving opioids have poorer outcomes than patients receiving nonopioids, and FM guidelines recommend against the use of opioid analgesics. Despite this, and despite the availability of alternative Food and Drug Administration-approved pharmacotherapies and the efficacy of nonpharmacologic therapies, opioids are commonly used in the treatment of FM. Factors associated with opioid use include female sex; geographic variation; psychological factors; a history of opioid use, misuse, or abuse; and patient or physician preference. The long-term use of opioid analgesics is of particular concern in the United States given the ongoing public health emergency relating to excess prescription opioid consumption. The continued use of opioids to treat FM despite a proven lack of efficacy, lack of support from treatment guidelines, and the availability of approved pharmacotherapy options provides a cautionary tale for their use in other chronic pain conditions.

An Online Survey of Patients' Experiences Since the Rescheduling of Hydrocodone: The First 100 Days

OBJECTIVE

To conduct an Internet patient survey through the National Fibromyalgia & Chronic Pain Association on reactions to the first 100 days following the rescheduling of hydrocodone.

METHODS

Face-valid survey questions were created with expert consensus along with repurposed questions used on previous NFMCPA surveys covering domains such as demographics and symptoms. The questionnaire was designed to be administered over the Internet.

RESULTS

6,420 responders met screening criteria and completed the survey. Most (5,181, or 82.5%) had been prescribed hydrocodone for more than 1 year. 2,296, (39.0%) reported no changes in access to hydrocodone, while the majority experienced some barriers. Of those who could no longer get hydrocodone, 1,067 (18.1%) borrowed pain medications, 1,007 (17.1%) turned to marijuana, 773 (13.1%) used alcohol, and 135 (2.3%) used illicit drugs. Most respondents had to visit their healthcare providers more often (N = 3,699, 64.2%) and 1,735 (30.3%) reported some type of issue interacting with their pharmacy. Most felt that the rescheduling was neither a fair nor appropriate solution to the abuse of hydrocodone (N = 4,938, 88.3%). For those still working, 801 (46.2%) reported that they had missed work because of the stricter regulations. 1,462 (27.2%) reported having thoughts of suicide since the rescheduling.

SIGNIFICANCE

The unintended consequences for people with chronic pain that have been caused by the rescheduling effort to impede hydrocodone abuse are negatively impacting thousands. These consequences include suffering from being placed on less effective drugs, increased cost, inconvenience, and negative influence on physician-patient and pharmacist-patient relationships.

Healthcare Costs Associated With Chronic Opioid Use and Fibromayalgia Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Fibromyalgia (FM) is an idiopathic, functional syndrome characterized by chronic, widespread pain and diffuse tenderness. This disorder affects more than 6 million patients in the United States and is associated with significant clinical and economic burdens.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to: 1) estimate the costs associated with a FM diagnosis; and 2) estimate the impact of chronic opioid use on the costs of FM patients.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Case-control study.

METHODS

Subjects were identified in a large nationally representative database of commercially insured patients. Propensity score-matched analyses included 445,912 FM-control pairs in the first analysis, while the second analysis included 48,333 chronic opioid users with the FM-control pairs. Primary outcomes of interest were the medical and prescription costs compared between matched pairs, based on propensity for being a case as evidenced by coefficients obtained from a first-stage logistic regression. Patient characteristics considered include: state of residence, diagnosing provider type, comorbid conditions, and concurrent medication use.

RESULTS

When controlling for propensity to receive a FM diagnosis, the actual diagnosis has a small effect on medical (-$83.54 [95% CI, -152.55 to -16.53]) and prescription ($120.31 [95% CI, 109.98-130.62]) costs. However, the effect of chronic opioid use in FM patients on medical ($9094.05 [95% CI, 8924.79-9263.31]) and prescription ($3391.81 [95% CI, 3368.84-3414.79]) costs is much more substantial.

CONCLUSIONS

While the differences seen in FM patients and controls are marginal, those attributed to chronic opioid use in these patients are significantly higher. Chronic opioid therapy to treat FM is a practice based not on evidence available to practitioners, but on other variables.

Review of pharmacological therapies in fibromyalgia syndrome

This review addresses the current status of drug therapy for the management of fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) and is based on interdisciplinary FMS management guidelines, meta-analyses of drug trial data, and observational studies. In the absence of a single gold-standard medication, patients are treated with a variety of drugs from different categories, often with limited evidence. Drug therapy is not mandatory for the management of FMS. Pregabalin, duloxetine, milnacipran, and amitriptyline are the current first-line prescribed agents but have had a mostly modest effect. With only a minority of patients expected to experience substantial benefit, most will discontinue therapy because of either a lack of efficacy or tolerability problems. Many drug treatments have undergone limited study and have had negative results. It is unlikely that these failed pilot trials will undergo future study. However, medications, though imperfect, will continue to be a component of treatment strategy for these patients. Both the potential for medication therapy to relieve symptoms and the potential to cause harm should be carefully considered in their administration.