ESPGHAN/ESPEN/ESPR/CSPEN guidelines on pediatric parenteral nutrition: Lipids

Essential fatty acid deficiency in parenteral nutrition: Historical perspective and modern solutions, a narrative review

Essential fatty acid deficiency (EFAD) may occur in the setting of inadequate fat intake, malabsorption, malnutrition, and altered fat metabolism. Humans lack the enzymes to synthesize the essential acids linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, so they must be obtained from the diet. Patients dependent on parenteral nutrition need adequate amounts of these essential fatty acids supplied in lipid injectable emulsions (ILEs). With the increasing use of multicomponent ILEs that are lower in linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid, it is imperative that clinicians understand appropriate dosing to prevent EFAD. An understanding of fatty acid composition and metabolic pathways is important, as the use of the Holman Index (triene:tetraene ratio) alone may lead to an inaccurate diagnosis of EFAD.

Impact of SMOFlipid emulsion integration in total parenteral nutrition on inpatient outcomes and economic burden for preterm neonates: a retrospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

The use of lipid emulsion in TPN for preterm infants can affect clinical outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the potential beneficial health outcomes and economic impact of including SMOFlipid emulsion in TPN for preterm infants, specifically focusing on the incidence of neonatal sepsis, LOS in the NICU, and the associated economic implications from the perspective of healthcare providers in Egypt.

METHODS

A record-based retrospective cohort study was conducted in 2021. We collected data from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of Alexandria University Pediatric Hospital, Egypt, for newborns who received TPN. The collected data included gestational age, birth weight, sex, diagnosis of sepsis, LOS in the NICU and type of TPN. Our sample consisted of 103 newborns who received TPN with SMOFlipid and 104 newborns who received TPN without SMOFlipid. Using the propensity score, the study groups' baseline characteristics were balanced. Odds ratios were estimated using logistic regression, and the statistical significance was set at < 0.05.

RESULTS

Compared to TPN without lipids, the use of SMOFlipid was associated with an observed reduction in the risk of sepsis (OR = 0.64, 95% CI: 0.272-1.51), as well as a difference in the mean reduction in hospital stay (4.12 days, p = 0.08). Furthermore, using SMOFlipid was associated with a significant mean reduction in cost of 6,396 EGP (95% CI: 1,491-11,546 EGP).

CONCLUSION

The integration of SMOFlipid into TPN for preterm infants is associated with decreased incidence of sepsis, reduced NICU stay, and significant cost savings, warranting consideration for standard care practices.

Lipids in Clinical Nutrition and Health: Narrative Review and Dietary Recommendations

Lipids are essential components of human health, serving as critical structural elements of cell membranes, energy sources, and precursors for bioactive molecules. This narrative review aims to examine the multifaceted roles of lipids in clinical nutrition and health, focusing on their impact on chronic disease prevention, management, and the potential of lipid-based therapies. A narrative review was conducted utilizing Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases. Key terms such as lipids, dietary fats, and cholesterol were used to identify and analyze relevant studies. A total of 145 articles meeting inclusion criteria were reviewed for their insights into lipid metabolism, dietary sources, and clinical implications. The analysis highlighted the metabolic significance of various lipid classes-saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids-along with evidence-based recommendations for their dietary intake. Lipids were shown to play a pivotal role in managing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Emerging therapies, including omega-3 fatty acids and medium-chain triglycerides, demonstrated potential benefits in clinical practice. By synthesizing current knowledge, this narrative review provides healthcare professionals with an updated understanding of the roles of lipids in clinical nutrition. The findings emphasize the importance of tailored dietary interventions and lipid-based therapies in optimizing health and managing chronic diseases effectively. Additionally, this review successfully presents practical dietary recommendations to guide clinical practice.

The evolution of nutritional care in preterm infants with a focus on the extreme preterm infant

The evolution of nutritional care in preterm infants, particularly those classified as extremely preterm, has undergone significant advancements in recent years. These infants, born at less than 28 weeks of gestation, face unique challenges related to their elevated nutrient requirements, underdeveloped organ systems and minimal reserves, posing a need for timely and specialised nutritional strategies. Historically, the nutritional management of preterm infants focussed on short-term goals to promote survival. In recent years, the focus has shifted to the quality of nutrient provision to optimise neurodevelopment and longer-term health outcomes. This review highlights the shift from a generalised nutritional approach to a robust, evidence-based approach for preterm infants, acknowledging the intricate interplay between nutrition, holistic care and developmental outcomes. As neonatal care continues to evolve, ongoing research will refine nutritional interventions, optimise growth and enhance the long-term health outcomes of these vulnerable infants.

Early Optimal Parenteral Nutrition During NICU Stay and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants: State of the Art

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants (PIs) are more susceptible to neurodevelopmental impairment compared with term newborns. Adequate postnatal growth has been associated with improved neurocognitive outcomes; therefore, optimization of nutrition may positively impact the neurodevelopment of PIs.

OBJECTIVE

This study focused on macronutrient parenteral nutrition (PN) intake during the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit stay and their associations with neurodevelopmental outcomes in PIs in the first two years of life.

METHODS

The Embase, MEDLINE, and Cochrane Library databases were searched using the following subject headings and terms (MeSH): "premature infants", "parenteral nutrition", "growth", "brain", "neurodevelopment", and "central nervous system diseases". All relevant papers' reference lists were manually searched. PN and neurodevelopment studies concerning the first two years of life were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

275 potential studies were retrieved, 64 were selected for full-text reading, and 22 were included (12 randomized controlled trials). While glucose intakes should be immediately provided and strictly monitored avoiding hyperglycemia, the long-term outcomes of aggressive PN caloric intakes are uncertain. Early amino acid (AA) supplementation is mandatory and improves short-term growth, though it is questionable whether increased AA and better neurodevelopment are directly related. Lipid infusion should be initiated right after birth, and further investigation will enable us to ascertain the potential impacts of lipid emulsions, particularly fish oil, on PI neurodevelopment.

CONCLUSIONS

An aggressive PN and its possible metabolic complication could not favor neurodevelopment; the way forward could be a customized approach, depending on the patient's clinical state and tolerance. Long-term follow-up studies and the search for specific markers of tolerance are warranted.

Untargeted metabolomics analysis of glycerophospholipid metabolism in very low birth weight infants administered multiple oil lipid emulsions

BACKGROUND

To compare the impact of two different lipid emulsions, specifically a soybean oil-based emulsion and a multiple oil emulsion (soybean oil, medium-chain triglycerides, olive oil, and fish oil, SMOF), on serum metabolites of very low birth weight (VLBW) infants using untargeted metabolomics analysis.

METHODS

A comparative study was conducted on 25 VLBW infants hospitalized in neonatal intensive care units (NICU) of Hangzhou Women's Hospital in 2023. The infants were divided into the SMOF group (13 cases) and the soybean oil group (12 cases) based on the type of lipid emulsion used during parenteral nutrition. Serum samples were collected at birth and 14 days later from both groups. An untargeted metabolomics analysis was conducted on serum samples using Ultra-high Performance Liquid Chromatography - Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Differential metabolites were identified using Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) modeling, with criteria of variable importance in the projection (VIP) > 1 and false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05. Functional annotation of the top 30 differential metabolites, ranked by VIP value, was conducted using the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. Subsequently, enrichment and topological analyses were conducted with MetaboAnalyst software to identify key metabolic pathways. Finally, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed on metabolites associated with the identified key metabolic pathways.

RESULTS

The metabolomic analysis revealed that, in the OPLS-DA model, no significant metabolite differences were found in umbilical cord blood between the two groups. However, 84 differential metabolites were identified in the 14-day samples from the SMOF group compared to the soybean oil group. According to MetaboAnalyst analysis, glycerophospholipid metabolism emerged as the most significantly altered metabolic pathway following the administration of SMOF lipid emulsion. Additionally, ROC curve analysis confirmed a significant increase in LysoPC(20:5), PE(16:0/20:5), and PE-NMe(22:5/16:0) metabolites in the SMOF group.

CONCLUSION

The administration of SMOF lipid emulsion in VLBW infants resulted in significant modifications of serum metabolites compared to traditional soybean oil-based lipid emulsions. Notably, glycerophospholipid metabolism was identified as the most prominently altered metabolic pathway. Metabolites, including LysoPC(20:5), PE(16:0/20:5), and PE-NMe(22:5/16:0), emerged as potential biomarkers.

CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER

Not applicable.

Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Parenteral Nutrition

Appropriate nutrition is of paramount importance during infancy and childhood, and Parenteral Nutrition (PN), which is the intravenous infusion of nutrients in the elementary form, may be necessary as a supplement or a full replacement for enteral nutrition [...].

Association between consensus-based nutrition pathway and growth faltering in infants with gastroschisis: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The University of California Fetal Consortium published that 55% of infants with gastroschisis develop growth faltering by hospital discharge. To address this problem, we developed a nutrition pathway emphasizing (1) early provision of parenteral macronutrients, (2) use of human milk, and (3) growth faltering treatment. This study's goals were to assess adherence to and efficacy of this pathway in infants with gastroschisis across six California hospitals.

METHODS

In 2015, the consortium standardized the care for infants with gastroschisis. To decrease growth faltering rates, between 2019 and 2020, nutrition guidelines were proposed, discussed, revised, and initiated. This study's primary outcome was weight or linear growth faltering (z score decline ≥0.8 in weight or length) at hospital discharge. Adherence measures were assessed.

RESULTS

One hundred twenty-six infants with gastroschisis were born prepathway; 52 were born postpathway. Median gestational age was similar between cohorts. Adherence to components of the pathway ranged from 58% to 95%. The proportion of infants with weight or linear growth faltering at discharge was lower after pathway initiation (59.4% vs 36.2%, P = 0.0068). Adjusting for gestational age and fetal growth restriction, the pathway was associated with decreased weight or linear growth faltering (odds ratio [OR] 0.35 [0.16-0.75], P = 0.0060) and decreased linear growth faltering (OR 0.24 [0.096-0.56], P = 0.0062) at discharge. Hypertriglyceridemia, cholestasis, and days to full feeds were similar to published cohorts.

CONCLUSION

Fewer infants with gastroschisis experienced weight or length growth faltering at hospital discharge following the implementation of a multicenter nutrition pathway.

Association between SMOF lipid and parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis compared with Intralipid in extremely low birth weight infants: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

There is limited evidence on benefits of SMOF lipids (mixed fatty acid emulsion of 30% soybean oil, 30% medium chain triglycerides, 25% olive oil, and 15% fish oil) in reducing parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis in extremely low birth weight infants, compared with soybean oil-based Intralipid.

AIM

To compare incidence of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis in preterm infants who received Intralipid vs SMOF lipid.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study on infants with birth weight <1000 g, admitted between January 2013 to December 2022, who received parenteral nutrition for >14 days and divided them into two groups based on lipid emulsion received (Intralipid, n = 187, SMOF, n = 127). Primary outcome was incidence of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis, defined as direct bilirubin ≥2 mg/dl.

RESULTS

Baseline characteristics did not differ between the two groups. No significant difference was noted in parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis between the two groups on logistic regression, (adjusted odds ratio: 0.71, 95% confidence interval 0.35-1.42, P value 0.33) after adjusting for gestational age, parenteral nutrition days, lipid days, and late-onset sepsis.

CONCLUSION

There was no difference in the rates of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis between preterm infants administered SMOF lipids and those given Intralipid.

Association between SMOFlipid and impaired brain development on term-equivalent age brain magnetic resonance imaging in very preterm infants

Soybean oil, medium-chain triglycerides, olive oil, and fish oil (SMOFlipid) is used without evidence of benefits. We investigated the relationship between lipid emulsions and brain injury in term-equivalent age magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 148 very preterm infants with a birth weight of < 1500 g at ≤ 32 gestational weeks in a neonatal intensive care unit. Infants who received soybean-based lipid emulsions between January 2015 and December 2018 were compared with those who received SMOFlipids between January 2019 and December 2022. A negative binomial generalized linear model was applied for bivariate analysis. Modified log-Poisson regression with generalized linear models and a robust variance estimator (Huber-White) were applied to adjust for potential confounders. The Kidokoro score was used to determine if lipid emulsion type would affect brain morphology and growth at term-equivalent age. Eighty-six (58.9%) received SMOFlipid. SMOFlipid was associated with lower focal signal abnormality, myelination delay, increased extracerebral space, and cerebellar volume reduction (P = 0.02, P = 0.007, P = 0.01, P = 0.02, respectively). SMOFlipidis are associated with brain insult, especially in white matter, cortical gray matter, and the cerebellum. Well-designed studies are needed to investigate the effect of lipid emulsions on the central nervous system.

Personalized Nutrition in the Pediatric ICU: Steering the Shift from Acute Stress to Metabolic Recovery and Rehabilitation

BACKGROUND

Nutrition significantly impacts the outcomes of critically ill children in intensive care units (ICUs). Due to the evolving metabolic, neuroendocrine, and immunological disorders associated with severe illness or trauma, there are dynamically changing phases of energy needs requiring tailored macronutrient intake.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to assess the changing dietary needs from the acute phase through recovery, provide recommendations for implementing evidence-based strategies to ensure adequate energy and nutrient provision in pediatric ICUs, and optimize patient outcomes.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of the MEDLINE-PubMed database was conducted, focusing on randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews related to the nutrition of critically ill children. The study highlights recent guidelines using the GRADE approach, supplemented by relevant adult studies, current clinical practices, challenges, gaps in knowledge, and future directions for research aimed at improving nutritional interventions.

RESULTS

Early personalized, incremental enteral feeding helps mitigate the negative energy balance during the acute phase, aids organ function restoration in the stabilization phase, and supports growth during the recovery phase and beyond. Conversely, early full nutritional support, high protein doses, or isolated micronutrient administration have not demonstrated benefits due to anabolic resistance in these patients. Moreover, early parenteral nutrition during the acute phase may suppress autophagy and lead to worse outcomes. Accurate assessment of nutritional status and monitoring of daily energy and protein needs are crucial.

CONCLUSIONS

Strong evidence supports the establishment of a dedicated nutritional team and the implementation of individualized nutritional protocols in the ICU to reduce morbidity and mortality in critically ill children.

When parenteral nutrition is the answer: The case of pediatric intestinal rehabilitation

In pediatric patients with intestinal failure, parenteral nutrition is lifesaving but also has several associated risks. The goals of intestinal rehabilitation include promoting growth, minimizing complications associated with intestinal failure, and reaching enteral autonomy, if possible. Pediatric intestinal rehabilitation programs are interdisciplinary teams that strive to provide optimal care for children dependent on parenteral nutrition. The provision of parenteral nutrition requires close monitoring of patients' growth, nutrition concerns, clinical status, and laboratory parameters. Recent advances in the field of intestinal rehabilitation include new lipid emulsions, considerations regarding enteral feeding, advances in micronutrient provision, and central venous catheter preservation techniques. Challenges in the field remain, including improving overall quality of life with home parenteral nutrition administration and preventing recently recognized complications such as chronic intestinal inflammation.

Adherence to Nutritional Practice Guideline in Premature Infants: A Nationwide Survey in Taiwan

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the current neonatal nutritional practices in Taiwan and promote consensus on standardized protocols.

METHODS

An online questionnaire comprising 95 items on parenteral nutrition (PN) and enteral nutrition (EN) practices was distributed to neonatal care units across Taiwan via email between August and December 2022. The responses were compared with the recommendations from the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition for preterm infant care.

RESULTS

Most of the 35 neonatal units, comprising 17 level III and 18 level II units, that participated in this study adhered to standard PN protocols; however, only 30% of units used protein-containing solutions as the initial fluid. Over half of the neonatal units provided calcium, phosphate, and magnesium at less than the recommended dosage. Trophic feeding commenced within 48 h in 88% of the units, with the mother's milk used as the first choice. All the units preferred commencing advanced feeding at <25 mL/kg/day.

CONCLUSIONS

Most nutrient protocols for preterm infants in neonatal units in Taiwan meet recent guidelines, but discrepancies such as lower mineral supplements in PN and a slower advancement of enteral feeding increase nutritional risk. These issues warrant further research.

Improving growth in preterm infants through nutrition: a practical overview

The primary purpose of this practical overview is to provide a practical update on appropriate nutritional strategies to improve growth in preterm infants. Current recommendations for improving preterm growth concern both macronutrients and micronutrients, with tailored nutrition since the first days of life, particularly when fetal growth restriction has been reported. Human milk is undoubtedly the best nutrition for all newborns, but, in some populations, if not adequately fortified, it does not adequately support their growth. In all preterms, growth should be correctly monitored weekly to intercept a negative trend of growth and implement nutritional strategies to avoid growth restriction. Similarly, growth should be accurately supported and monitored after discharge to improve long-term health consequences.

Pediatric Chronic Intestinal Failure: Something Moving?

Pediatric chronic intestinal failure (PIF) is a rare and heterogeneous condition characterized by the inability of the patient's intestine to adequately absorb the required fluids and/or nutrients for growth and homeostasis. As a result, patients will become dependent on home parenteral nutrition (HPN). A MEDLINE search was performed in May 2024 with keywords "intestinal failure", "parenteral nutrition" and "pediatric". Different underlying conditions which may result in PIF include short bowel syndrome, intestinal neuromuscular motility disorders and congenital enteropathies. Most common complications associated with HPN are catheter-related bloodstream infections, catheter-related thrombosis, intestinal failure-associated liver disease, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, metabolic bone disease and renal impairment. Treatment for children with PIF has markedly improved with a great reduction in morbidity and mortality. Centralization of care in specialist centers and international collaboration between centers is paramount to further improve care for this vulnerable patient group. A recently promising medical therapy has become available for children with short bowel syndrome which includes glucagon-like peptide 2, a naturally occurring hormone which is known to delay gastric emptying and induce epithelial proliferation. Despite advances in curative and supportive treatment, further research is necessary to improve nutritional, pharmacological and surgical care and prevention of complications associated with parenteral nutrition use.

Nutritional Management of Pediatric Gastrointestinal Motility Disorders

Normal and optimal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract is paramount to ensure optimal nutrition through digestion, absorption and motility function. Disruptions in these functions can lead to adverse physiological symptoms, reduced quality of life and increased nutritional risk. When disruption or dysfunction of neuromuscular function occurs, motility disorders can be classified depending on whether coordination or strength/velocity of peristalsis are predominantly impacted. However, due to their nonspecific presenting symptoms and overlap with sensory disruption, they are frequently misdiagnosed as disorders of the gut-brain interaction. Motility disorders are a prevalent issue in the pediatric population, with management varying from medical therapy to psychological therapy, dietary manipulation, surgical intervention or a multimodal approach. This narrative review aims to discuss the dietary management of common pediatric motility disorders including gastroesophageal reflux, esophageal atresia, achalasia, gastroparesis, constipation, and the less common but most severe motility disorder, pediatric intestinal pseudo-obstruction.

Nutritional management after necrotizing enterocolitis and focal intestinal perforation in preterm infants

Nutritional management of preterm infants recovering from necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) or focal intestinal perforation (FIP) is challenging, especially in infants managed surgically. The logistics of how, when, and what to feed are unclear and current nutritional practices are primarily based on physiological principles and consensus opinion in individual units, rather than high-quality evidence. The aim of this narrative review is to summarize the literature on nutritional management after NEC or FIP in preterm infants: when to restart enteral nutrition, type of enteral nutrition to use, and how to advance nutrition. We also discuss treatment of micronutrient deficiencies, cholestasis, replacement of stoma losses, and optimal time of stoma closure. In conclusion, there are in sufficient high-quality studies available to provide evidence-based recommendations on the best nutritional practice after NEC or FIP in preterm infants. A local or national consensus based early nutrition guideline agreed upon by a multidisciplinary team including pediatric surgeons, pediatricians/neonatologists, nurses, and nutritionists is recommended. Further studies are urgently needed. IMPACT: There is no good quality evidence or nutritional standard across neonatal units treating infants after medical or surgical NEC or FIP. With this review we hope to start providing some consistency across patients and between providers treating patients with NEC and FIP. Mother's own milk is recommended when restarting enteral nutrition after NEC or FIP. In the absence of high-quality evidence, a consensus based early nutrition guideline agreed upon by a multidisciplinary team is recommended. Nutritional research projects are urgently needed in NEC and FIP patients.

Benefits and Risks of Preprepared Parenteral Nutrition for Early Amino Acid Administration in Premature Infants with Very Low Birth Weight

Purpose

Administering early parenteral amino acids to very low birth weight (VLBW) premature infants (birth body weight [BBW]<1,500 g) is challenging due to factors such as holidays, cost, and access to sterile compounding facilities. Using advance-prepared parenteral nutrition (PN) may address this issue and should be evaluated for its safety and potential benefits.

Methods

We extracted data from medical records collected between July 2015 and August 2019. VLBW infants received PN for at least seven days and were split into two groups: the traditional group (n=30), which initially received a glucose solution and then PN on workdays, and the pre-preparation group (n=16), which received advance-prepared PN immediately upon admission to the neonatal intensive care unit.

Results

The median BBWs of the traditional and pre-preparation groups were 1,180.0 vs. 1,210.0 g. In the initial two days, the pre-preparation group had a significantly higher amino acid intake (2.23 and 2.24 g/kg/d) than the traditional group (0 and 1.78 g/kg/d). The pre-preparation group exhibited greater head circumference growth ratio relative to birth (7th day: 1.21% vs. -3.57%, p=0.014; 21st day: 7.71% vs. 3.31%, p=0.017). No significant differences in metabolic tolerance were observed.

Conclusion

Advanced preparation of PN can be safely implemented in VLBW preterm infants, offering advantages such as early, higher amino acid intake and improved head circumference growth within the first 21 days post-birth. This strategy may serve as a viable alternative in settings where immediate provision of sterile compounding facilities is challenging.

Reply to Benedik et al. Comment on "Jakše et al. Vegan Diets for Children: A Narrative Review of Position Papers Published by Relevant Associations. Nutrients 2023, 15, 4715"

Benedik et al [...].

The Use of Standardized Solutions Instead of Individualized Prescriptions for Parenteral Nutrition on the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit in UZ Brussel: A Feasibility Study

For parenteral nutrition (PN) of newborns, the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) 2018 guidelines recommend standardized solutions over individual PN (IPN) solutions for most patients. This retrospective study assessed if a shift from IPN to standardized PN was feasible at the UZ Brussel. Using prescription data of 145 neonates, we calculated the nutrient provision for IPN and for standardized PN of the same volumes. We compared the macronutrient intakes with ESPGHAN 2018 recommendations to assess the feasibility. For neonates of a gestational age (GA) <32 or >36 weeks, standardized PN reached recommendations as least as fast as IPN. For neonates with a GA of 32 to 36 weeks, the administration protocol requires further adjustments as amino acid provision was lacking compared to IPN. Overall, the results support the feasibility of a shift from IPN to standardized PN at the UZ Brussel.

Early versus late parenteral nutrition in term and late preterm infants: a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

There is limited evidence regarding the optimal time to commence parenteral nutrition (PN) in term and late preterm infants.

DESIGN

Single-centre, non-blinded, exploratory randomised controlled trial.

SETTING

A level-3 neonatal unit in a stand-alone paediatric hospital.

PATIENTS

Infants born ≥34 weeks of gestation and ≤28 days, who needed PN. Eligible infants were randomised on day 1 or day 2 of admission.

INTERVENTIONS

Early (day 1 or day 2 of admission, N=30) or late (day 6 of admission, N=30) PN.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Plasma phenylalanine and F2-isoprostane levels on day 4 and day 8 of admission. Secondary outcomes were amino-acid and fatty-acid profiles on day 4 and day 8, and clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

The postnatal age at randomisation was similar between the groups (2.3 (SD 0.8) vs 2.3 (0.7) days, p=0.90). On day 4, phenylalanine levels in early-PN infants were higher than in late-PN (mean (SD) 62.9 (26.7) vs 45.5 (15.3) µmol/L; baseline-adjusted percentage difference 25.8% (95% CI 11.6% to 39.9%), p<0.001). There was no significant difference in phenylalanine levels between the two groups on day 8. There was no significant difference between the groups for F2-isoprostane levels on day 4 (early-PN mean (SD) 389 (176) vs late-PN 419 (291) pg/mL; baseline-adjusted percentage difference: -4.4% (95% CI -21.5% to 12.8%) p=0.62) and day 8 (mean (SD) 305 (125) vs 354 (113) pg/mL; adjusted mean percentage difference -16.1 (95% CI -34.1 to 1.9) p=0.09).Postnatal growth restriction for weight was less severe in the early-PN group (change in weight z-score from baseline to discharge: -0.6 (0.6) vs -1.0 (0.6); p=0.02). The incidence of hyperglycaemia was greater in the early-PN group (20/30 (66.7%) vs 11/30 (36.7%), p=0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

The timing of the commencement of PN did not seem to affect the degree of oxidative stress in critically ill term and late preterm infants. The effect of transiently high plasma phenylalanine with early PN on clinical outcomes requires further investigation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12620000324910.

Managing Undernutrition in Pediatric Oncology: A Consensus Statement Developed Using the Delphi Method by the Polish Society for Clinical Nutrition of Children and the Polish Society of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology

"Managing Undernutrition in Pediatric Oncology" is a collaborative consensus statement of the Polish Society for Clinical Nutrition of Children and the Polish Society of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology. The early identification and accurate management of malnutrition in children receiving anticancer treatment are crucial components to integrate into comprehensive medical care. Given the scarcity of high-quality literature on this topic, a consensus statement process was chosen over other approaches, such as guidelines, to provide comprehensive recommendations. Nevertheless, an extensive literature review using the PubMed database was conducted. The following terms, namely pediatric, childhood, cancer, pediatric oncology, malnutrition, undernutrition, refeeding syndrome, nutritional support, and nutrition, were used. The consensus was reached through the Delphi method. Comprehensive recommendations aim to identify malnutrition early in children with cancer and optimize nutritional interventions in this group. The statement underscores the importance of baseline and ongoing assessments of nutritional status and the identification of the risk factors for malnutrition development, and it presents tools that can be used to achieve these goals. This consensus statement establishes a standardized approach to nutritional support, aiming to optimize outcomes in pediatric cancer patients.

Impact of lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition on platelets: a literature review

Lipid emulsions are essential components of parenteral nutrition solutions that provide energy and essential fatty acids. The complexity of the formulations of lipid emulsions may lead to adverse outcomes such as platelet reactivity and changes in platelet aggregation and related coagulation. Platelets are responsible for haemostasis; they activate and demonstrate morphological changes upon extracellular factors to maintain blood fluidity and vascular integrity. Although parenteral nutrition lipid emulsions are generally found safe with regard to modulation of platelet activity, studies are still accumulating. Thus, this review aims to investigate platelet-related changes by parenteral nutrition lipid emulsions in human studies. Studies have pointed out patients at risk of bleeding and increased platelet aggregation responses due to the administration of lipid emulsions. Lipid emulsions may further benefit patients at high risk of thrombosis due to anti-thrombotic effects and should be cautiously used in patients with thrombocytopenia. The reported platelet-related changes might be associated with the fatty acid change in the plasma membranes of platelets following changes in platelet synthesis and plasma levels of eicosanoids. In conclusion, studies investigating platelets and parenteral nutrition should be supported to minimize the adverse effects and to benefit from the potential protective effects of parenteral nutrition lipid emulsions.

A Retrospective Study Evaluating Guideline Adherence of Neonatal Parenteral Nutrition in a Belgian Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

Introduction Clinical nutrition for preterm and critically ill neonates remains a challenge. Preterms are often hemodynamically and metabolically compromised, which limits infusion volumes of nutrients and hinders achieving recommended nutrient intakes. While guidelines provide recommended ranges for parenteral nutrition (PN) intakes, they generally recommend enteral nutrition as soon as possible. Thus, in clinical practice, gradually increasing EN intakes complicates assessments of PN guideline adherence. Via a pragmatic approach, we assessed adherence to PN recommendations for macronutrients and energy as stated in the 2018 guidelines of the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). Methods In this retrospective study, we assessed the nutrition of preterm and critically ill term neonates from the neonatal intensive care unit of the University Hospital Brussels. We analyzed intakes for the first week of life, in which critically ill neonates at our center usually receive the majority of nutrients via PN. The PN-based provision of macronutrients and energy was analyzed descriptively in relation to the ESPGHAN 2018 recommendations. Results Macronutrients and energy provision gradually increased until they reached recommended or targeted values. Compared to term neonates, energy and lipid provision for preterms increased faster, while amino acid provision exceeded the ESPGHAN 2018 recommendations. Conclusions This study adds clinical practice data to the severely understudied field of the ESPGHAN 2018 PN guideline compliance. Using a pragmatic assessment of our nutrition protocols, we found the need to reduce the amount of amino acids per kg body weight per day to meet guideline recommendations.

The effects of parenteral fish oil on neurodevelopment in preterm infants: A narrative review

OBJECTIVE

This narrative review aimed to summarize studies assessing the effects of parenteral fish oil on neurodevelopment in preterm infants.

METHODS

PubMed was searched (July 1985 to October 2023). We reviewed randomized controlled trials, and observational studies assessing intravenous lipid emulsion with fish oil in preterm infants (born less than 37 weeks' gestation), that reported long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes.

RESULTS

We identified four publications relating to three randomized controlled trials in addition to four cohort studies. Study designs and outcomes were heterogenous and precluded meta-analyses. Results of trials were null for a selection of neurodevelopmental outcomes, however possible benefits of parenteral fish oil supplementation for neurodevelopment was reported in three cohort studies. Certainty of the evidence is hindered by methodological limitations of available trials and observational studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Further research is required to firmly establish the effects of parenteral fish oil on preterm neurodevelopment.

An Overview of Parenteral Nutrition from Birth to Adolescence Based on a Composite Fish Oil Containing Lipid Emulsion and a Pediatric Amino Acid Solution

Intestinal failure (IF) is characterized by a critical reduction in functional gut mass below the minimum needed for optimal growth in children. It requires parenteral nutrition (PN) and home-PN (HPN), which is challenging in terms of meeting nutritional needs according to age, growth velocity, clinical situation, and rapid changes in fluid and electrolyte requirements. Due to these complex requirements, age-adapted multi-chamber bags (MCBs) are important additions to the nutrition armamentarium. The launch of composite fish oil (FO)-containing intravenous lipid emulsions (ILEs) heralded the development of MCBs containing these ILEs in combination with a crystalline amino acid solution adapted for pediatric use. The safety and efficacy of lipid and amino acid components in this context have been widely documented in numerous published studies. This narrative manuscript includes a review of the articles published in PudMed, Embase, and Google Scholar up to June 2023 for the age groups of term infants to children and adolescents. Preterm infants with their highly specific demands are not included. It aims to offer an overview of the clinical experience regarding the use of a composite FO-based ILE and a developed specific amino acid solution.

Nutrition guidelines for preterm infants: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

There is no consensus on optimal nutrition for preterm infants, leading to substantial practice variation. We aimed to assess the quality of nutrition guidelines for preterm infants, the consistency of recommendations, and the gaps in recommendations.

METHODS

We searched databases and websites for nutrition guidelines for preterm infants before first hospital discharge, which were endorsed, prepared, or authorized by a regional, national, or international body, written in English, and published between 2012 and 2023. Two reviewers independently screened articles and extracted the recommendations. Four reviewers appraised the included guidelines using Appraisal of Guidelines, Research, and Evaluation II.

RESULTS

A total of 7051 were identified, with 27 guidelines included, 26% of which were high in quality. Most guidelines lacked stakeholder involvement and rigor of development. We found considerable variation in recommendations, many of which lacked details on certainty of evidence and strength of recommendation. Recommendations for type of feed and breastmilk fortification were consistent among high-quality guidelines, but recommendations varied for intakes of almost all nutrients and monitoring of nutrition adequacy. Different guidelines gave different certainty of evidence for the same recommendations. Most gaps in recommendations were due to very low certainty of evidence.

CONCLUSION

Future development of nutrition guidelines for preterm infants should follow the standard guideline development method and ensure the rigorous process, including stakeholders' involvement, to improve the reporting of strength of recommendation, certainty of evidence, and gaps in recommendation. Evidence is needed to support recommendations about macro and micronutrient intakes, breastmilk fortification, and markers on adequacy of intake of different nutrients.

Optimizing Nutrition in Neonates with Kidney Dysfunction

The nutritional management of neonates with kidney disease is complex. There may be significant differences in nutritional needs based on the duration and cause of kidney dysfunction, including acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Furthermore, the treatment modality, including acute (continuous renal replacement therapy and peritoneal dialysis [PD]) and chronic (intermittent hemodialysis and PD) approaches may differentially affect nutritional losses and dietary needs. In this review, we discuss the pathophysiology of compromised nutrition in neonates with AKI and CKD. We also summarize the existing data and consensus recommendations on the provision of nutrition to neonates with AKI and CKD. We highlight the paucity of data on micronutrient losses and the need for future prospective studies to enhance nutritional supplementation to hopefully improve outcomes in these patients.

In parenteral nutrition-fed piglets, fatty acids vary by lipid emulsion and tissue sampled

BACKGROUND

Children with intestinal failure without liver disease may be given soy-based lipid emulsion (SLE) or mixed lipid emulsion (MLE; containing soy, medium-chain triglyceride, olive, and/or fish oils). Both differ in essential fatty acid content: MLE has added arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The aim of this study, in neonatal piglets, was to compare serum and tissue fatty acid composition when the emulsions were given at unrestricted doses.

METHODS

We compared SLE (n = 15) and MLE (n = 15) at doses of 10-15 g/kg/day in parenteral nutrition (PN). On day 14 we collected serum and tissues. Using gas-liquid chromatography, percentage fatty acids were measured in serum, brain, and liver phospholipid. Comparisons were made to reference values from litter-matched controls (n = 8).

RESULTS

Comparing median values, linoleic acid (LA) was lower for MLE vs SLE in serum (-27%), liver (-45%), and brain (-33%) (P < 0.001). AA was lower for MLE in serum (-25%), liver (-40%), and brain (-10%). DHA was higher for MLE in serum (+50%), liver (+200%), and brain (+10%). AA levels were lower for MLE vs control piglets in serum (-81%), liver (-63%), and brain (-9%). DHA levels were higher in serum (+41%), liver (+38%), and brain (+19%).

CONCLUSION

This study in piglets has shown that, at unrestricted doses, MLE treatment is associated with low serum and tissue AA compared with SLE and healthy litter-matched controls. Although not yet proven, low tissue AA levels may have functional consequences, and these data support current practice avoiding MLE dose restriction.

Nutrition for critically ill children with congenital heart disease

Children with congenital heart disease often require admission to the cardiac intensive care unit at some point in their lives, either after elective surgical or catheter-based procedures or during times of acute critical illness. Meeting both the macronutrient and micronutrient needs of children in the cardiac intensive care unit requires complex decision-making when considering gastrointestinal perfusion, vasoactive support, and fluid balance goals. Although nutrition guidelines exist for critically ill children, these cannot always be extrapolated to children with congenital heart disease. Children with congenital heart disease may also suffer unique circumstances, such as chylothoraces, heart failure, and the need for mechanical circulatory support, which greatly impact nutrition delivery. Guidelines for neonates and children with heart disease continue to be developed. We provide a synthesized narrative review of current literature and considerations for nutrition evaluation and management of critically ill children with congenital heart disease.

Change to Mixed-Lipid Emulsion From Soybean Oil-Based Lipid Emulsion in Pediatric Patients

Importance

Critically ill pediatric patients often require parenteral nutrition (PN) in the intensive care unit (ICU). Literature suggests mixed lipid emulsions (LE) with soybean oil reduction strategies may improve outcomes.

Objective

To examine the association of a hospital-wide switch to a mixed-lipid formula (4-OLE) with pediatric outcomes.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Retrospective cohort study at a large US academic referral center. Pediatric patients aged 1 month to 17 years requiring parenteral nutrition from May 2016 to September 2019 were included. Data were analyzed from October 2020 to February 2023.

Exposure

In 2017, Duke University Health System fully converted to a soybean oil/MCT/olive/fish oil lipid (4-OLE) from pure soybean oil-based LE in pediatric patients. Pediatric patients before the change (Intralipid [IL] group) were compared with patients after (4-OLE group).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Clinical outcomes were compared between treatment periods via multivariable regression models. The primary outcome was hospital length of stay (LOS). Fourteen secondary outcomes included hospital mortality of any cause, 30-day or 90-day readmission, pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), total caloric delivery, and liver function tests (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and total bilirubin).

Results

A total of 684 children dependent on PN were identified (342 were critically ill), with 30% (206 children) in the preswitch (IL) period and 70% (478 children) in the postswitch (4-OLE) period; 123 were male (59.7%). In comparing IL vs 4-OLE, there was a significant difference in median (IQR) age (4.0 [1.2-13.0] vs 3.0 [0.8-9.0] years, respectively; P = .04), without difference in body mass index or baseline comorbidities except for significant differences in cancer diagnosis (26 patients in the IL group [12.6%] vs 29 patients in the 4-OLE group [6.1%]; P = .004) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (24 patients in the IL group [11.7%] vs 30 patients in the 4-OLE group [6.3%]; P = .02). In the all children cohort, 4-OLE was associated with shorter hospital LOS (IRR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.05-0.78), and reduced UTI risk (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.18-0.64). In the ICU cohort, 4-OLE was associated with shorter hospital LOS (IRR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.78-0.83), and reduced UTI risk (OR, 0.23; 95% CI, 0.11-0.51). Other secondary outcomes were not significant.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this observational study of clinical outcomes among children dependent on PN, a switch to 4-OLE in a large academic hospital was associated with a significant decrease in hospital LOS in ICU and non-ICU patients. These findings suggest switching to a soy-LE sparing strategy using 4-OLE is feasible, safe, and associated with improved clinical outcomes in pediatric PN patients.

Dilemmas in the delivery of intravenous lipid emulsions and approach to hypertriglyceridemia in very preterm and low birth weight infants

Intravenous lipid emulsions (ILEs) are an essential component of parenteral nutrition for very preterm and very low birth weight infants (VLBWs). This article offers a perspective on advancements and controversies on ILE use in this population. ILEs prescribed after birth at a dose of 1.5-2 g/kg/day and advanced to 3 g/kg/day enhance growth. Growth appears to be similar for infants who receive an ILE composed of 100% soybean oil or a multi-oil ILE with 15% fish oil. 100% fish oil is the preferred ILE for the management of parenteral nutrition associated cholestasis and intestinal failure associated liver disease. Research is warranted to help determine how we can optimize ILEs to improve neurodevelopment and prematurity complications. Last, we lack a universal definition of hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) and consensus on triglyceride surveillance and HTG management. Investigation is required to determine the health impact of specific triglyceride ranges in very preterm infants and VLBWs.

Composite lipid emulsion use and essential fatty acid deficiency in pediatric patients with intestinal failure with high parenteral nutrition dependence: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Reports of essential fatty acid deficiency (EFAD) in patients receiving parenteral nutrition (PN) and a composite lipid (mixed oil intravenous lipid emulsion [MO ILE]) are predominantly when managed by lipid restriction. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of EFAD in patients with intestinal failure (IF) who are PN dependent without lipid restriction.

METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated patients, ages 0-17 years, followed by our intestinal rehabilitation program between November 2020 and June 2021 with PN dependency index (PNDI) of >80% on a MO ILE. Demographic data, PN composition, PN days, growth, and plasma fatty acid profile were collected. A plasma triene-tetraene (T:T) ratio >0.2 indicated EFAD. Summary statistics and Wilcoxon rank sum test evaluated to compare between PNDI category and ILE administration (grams/kilograms/day). P < 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

Twenty-six patients (median age, 4.1 years [interquartile range (IQR) = 2.4-9.6]) were included. The median duration of PN was 1367 days (IQR = 824-3195). Sixteen patients had a PNDI of 80%-120% (61.5%). Fat intake for the group was 1.7 g/kg/day (IQR = 1.3-2.0). The median T:T ratio was 0.1 (IQR = 0.1-0.2) with no values >0.2. Linoleic and arachidonic acid were low in 85% and 19% of patients, respectively; however, Mead acid was normal in all patients.

CONCLUSION

This report is the largest to date on the EFA status of patients with IF on PN. These results suggest that, in the absence of lipid restriction, EFAD is not a concern when using MO ILEs in children receiving PN for IF.

Parenteral Nutrition in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: Intravenous Lipid Emulsions

Intravenous lipid emulsions (ILEs) are a source of nonprotein calories and fatty acids and help promote growth in preterm infants and infants with intestinal failure. An ILE dose and oil source determines its fatty acid, phytosterol, and vitamin E delivery. These factors play a role in the infant's risk for essential fatty acid deficiency and cholestasis, and help modulate inflammation, immunity, and organ development. This article reviews different ILEs and their constituents and their relationship with neonatal health.

Nutrition for Infants with Congenital Heart Disease

Perioperative malnutrition in infants with congenital heart disease can lead to significant postnatal growth failure and poor short- and long-term outcomes. A standardized approach to nutrition is needed for the neonatal congenital heart disease population, taking into consideration the type of cardiac lesion, the preoperative and postoperative period, and prematurity. Early enteral feeding is beneficial and should be paired with parenteral nutrition to meet the fluid and nutrient needs of the infant.

SO,MCT,OO,FO-ILE Is Associated With Better Side Effect Profile Than SO-ILE in Critically Ill Children Receiving Parenteral Nutrition

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the side effect profile of soybean oil lipid injectable emulsion -(SO-ILE) and soybean oil, medium-chain triglyceride, olive oil, fish oil lipid injectable emulsion (SO,MCT,OO,FO-ILE) in critically ill children requiring parenteral nutrition (PN).

METHODS

This is an observational study of children admitted to our pediatric intensive care unit requiring PN for ≥7 days. Patients were divided into 2 cohorts: SO,MCT,OO,FO-ILE (n = 34) and SO-ILE (n = 111). Outcomes included development of hypertriglyceridemia (HTG), intestinal failure-associated liver disease (IFALD), length of stay, and mortality. Logistic regression was performed after controlling for duration and maximum dose of lipids.

RESULTS

The median maximum lipid dose was significantly higher in the SO,MCT,OO,FO-ILE cohort (2.7 vs 3 g/kg; p = 0.01). Prevalence of baseline HTG was similar in both cohorts. After excluding patients with baseline HTG, incidence of HTG upon PN introduction was higher in the SO-ILE cohort (51.2% vs 26.7%; p = 0.02). The SO-ILE cohort also had significantly higher triglyceride concentrations at peak and upon discontinuation of PN (p < 0.05). Direct bilirubin and C-reactive protein were significantly higher in the SO-ILE cohort after stopping PN. Five patients (3.4%) developed IFALD, 4 of whom were in the SO-ILE cohort (p = 0.85). Upon logistic regression, mortality rate and incidence of HTG remained significantly higher in the SO-ILE cohort (adjusted odds ratio, 2.3 [95% CI, 1.1-5.3]; p = 0.04; and adjusted odds ratio, 2.0 [95% CI, 1.3-5.1]; p = 0.03, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

In critically ill children requiring PN, SO-ILE was associated with a higher risk of HTG, -elevated direct bilirubin, inflammatory markers and mortality compared with SO,MCT,OO,FO-ILE.

Nutrition and Intestinal Rehabilitation of Children With Short Bowel Syndrome: A Position Paper of the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. Part 1: From Intestinal Resection to Home Discharge

Short bowel syndrome (SBS) is the leading cause of intestinal failure (IF) in children. The mainstay of treatment for IF is parenteral nutrition (PN). The aim of this position paper is to review the available evidence on managing SBS and to provide practical guidance to clinicians dealing with this condition. All members of the Nutrition Committee of the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) contributed to this position paper. Some renowned experts in the field joined the team to guide with their experience. A systematic literature search was performed from 2005 to May 2021 using PubMed, MEDLINE, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. In the absence of evidence, recommendations reflect the expert opinion of the authors. Literature on SBS mainly consists of retrospective single-center experience, thus most of the current papers and recommendations are based on expert opinion. All recommendations were voted on by the expert panel and reached >90% agreement. The first part of this position paper focuses on the physiological mechanism of intestinal adaptation after surgical resection. It subsequently provides some clinical practice recommendations for the primary management of children with SBS from surgical resection until discharged home on PN.

Effects of mixed oil emulsion on short-term clinical outcomes in premature infants: A prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

This study compared the clinical effects of two different lipid emulsions in premature infants with gestational age < 32 weeks (VPI) or birth weight < 1500 g (VLBWI) to provide an evidence-based medicine basis for optimizing intravenous lipid emulsion.

METHODS

This was a prospective multicenter randomized controlled study. A total of 465 VPIs or VLBWIs, admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit of five tertiary hospitals in China from March 1, 2021 to December 31, 2021, were recruited. All subjects were randomly allocated into two groups, namely, medium-chain triglycerides/long-chain triglycerides (MCT/LCT) group (n = 231) and soybean oil, medium-chain triglycerides, olive oil, and fish oil (SMOF) group (n = 234). Clinical features, biochemical indexes, nutrition support therapy, and complications were analyzed and compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found in perinatal data, hospitalization, parenteral and enteral nutrition support between the two groups (P > 0.05). Compared with the MCT/LCT group, the incidence of neonates with a peak value of total bilirubin (TB) > 5 mg/dL (84/231 [36.4% vs. 60/234 [25.6%]), a peak value of direct bilirubin (DB) ≥ 2 mg/dL (26/231 [11.3% vs. 14/234 [6.0%]), a peak value of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) > 900 IU/L (17/231 [7.4% vs. 7/234 [3.0%]), and a peak value of triglycerides (TG) > 3.4 mmol/L (13/231 [5.6% vs. 4/234[1.7%]]) were lower in the SMOF group (P < 0.05). Univariate analysis showed that in the subgroup analysis of < 28 weeks, the incidence of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis (PNAC) and metabolic bone disease of prematurity (MBDP) were lower in the SMOF group (P = 0.043 and 0.029, respectively), whereas no significant differences were present in the incidence of PNAC and MBDP between the two groups at > 28 weeks group (P = 0.177 and 0.991, respectively). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that the incidence of PNAC (aRR: 0.38, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.20-0.70, P = 0.002) and MBDP (aRR: 0.12, 95% CI: 0.19-0.81, P = 0.029) in the SMOF group were lower than that in the MCT/LCT group. In addition, no significant differences were recorded in the incidence of patent ductus arteriosus, feeding intolerance, necrotizing enterocolitis (Bell's stage ≥ 2), late-onset sepsis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, intraventricular hemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia, retinopathy of prematurity and extrauterine growth retardation between the two groups (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The application of mixed oil emulsion in VPI or VLBWI can reduce the risk of plasma TB > 5 mg/dL, DB ≥ 2 mg/dL, ALP > 900 IU/L, and TG > 3.4 mmol/L during hospitalization. SMOF has better lipid tolerance, reduces the incidence of PNAC and MBDP, and exerts more benefits in preterm infants with gestational age < 28 weeks.

Dietary Implications of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids during Pregnancy and in Neonates

Certain limitations exist for animals to modify fatty acid changes. Besides the role of arachidonic acid (AA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and other 20-carbon long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) for the synthesis of inflammatory mediators as eicosanoids, different LCPUFAs have many other effects, including their abilities to regulate gene expression and downstream events. LCPUFAs are susceptible to autoxidation, which is prevented by the action of antioxidants in the form of enzymes like superoxide dismutases, catalases and peroxidases, as well as antioxidant compounds that protect against oxidation or repair the damage caused. Under normal conditions, the fetus needs both essential fatty acids (EFAs) and LCPUFAs, which are obtained from its mother by placental transfer. In early pregnancy, dietary derived fatty acids are accumulated in maternal adipose tissue. However, during late pregnancy, corresponding to the period of the highest fetal growth, maternal adipose tissue becomes catabolic and LCPUFAs are released into the circulation by adipose lipolytic activity. The released LCPUFAs are taken up by maternal liver to be esterified and released back to the circulation as triacylglycerides (TAGs) in very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) that become available to the placenta to be transferred to the fetus in the form of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs). An enhanced adipose tissue lipolysis is maintained around parturition and esterified LCPUFAs are diverted to mammary glands thanks to an increased activity of lipoprotein lipase for milk production. Throughout this process, LCPUFAs become available to the newborn during suckling. The important role of both DHA and AA for the development of the nervous system and for growth has motivated their dietary supplement during different postnatal stages. This has been especially important in preterm infants both because under normal conditions, the fetus acquires most of these fatty acids during late pregnancy, and because the immaturity of the enzyme systems for the synthesis of AA and DHA from their respective EFAs.

The Prevalence of Small for Gestational Age and Extrauterine Growth Restriction among Extremely and Very Preterm Neonates, Using Different Growth Curves, and Its Association with Clinical and Nutritional Factors

Monitoring the growth of neonates in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) using growth charts constitutes an essential part of preterm infant care. Preterm infants are at increased risk for extrauterine growth restriction (EUGR) due to increased energy needs and clinical complications. This retrospective study compares the prevalence of small for gestational age (SGA) at birth and EUGR at discharge in extremely and very preterm neonates hospitalized in the NICU of a tertiary hospital in Greece, using different growth curves, and it examines the associated nutritional and clinical factors. Fenton2013 and INTERGROWTH-21st growth curves were used to calculate z-scores of birth weight (BW) and weight, length, and head circumference at discharge. The study includes 462 newborns with a mean BW of 1341.5 g and mean GA of 29.6 weeks. At birth, 6.3% of neonates were classified as SGA based on Fenton2013 curves compared to 9.3% with INTERGROWTH-21st growth curves. At discharge, 45.9% of neonates were characterized as having EUGR based on the Fenton2013 weight curves and 29.2% were characterized based οn INTERGROWTH-21st curves. Nutritional factors such as the day of initiation, attainment of full enteral feeding, and the duration of parenteral nutrition were associated with EUGR by both curves. The prevalence of SGA and EUGR neonates differs between the two growth references. This shows that further evaluation of these charts is needed to determine the most appropriate way to monitor infant growth.

Effect of reduced versus usual lipid emulsion dosing on bilirubin neurotoxicity and neurodevelopmental impairment in extremely preterm infants: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Bilirubin neurotoxicity (BN) occurs in premature infants at lower total serum bilirubin levels than term infants and causes neurodevelopmental impairment. Usual dose lipid infusions in preterm infants may increase free fatty acids sufficiently to cause bilirubin displacement from albumin, increasing passage of unbound bilirubin (UB) into the brain leading to BN and neurodevelopmental impairment not reliably identifiable in infancy. These risks may be influenced by whether cycled or continuous phototherapy is used to control bilirubin levels.

OBJECTIVE

To assess differences in wave V latency measured by brainstem auditory evoked responses (BAER) at 34-36 weeks gestational age in infants born ≤ 750 g or < 27 weeks' gestational age randomized to receive usual or reduced dose lipid emulsion (half of the usual dose) irrespective of whether cycled or continuous phototherapy is administered.

METHODS

Pilot factorial randomized controlled trial (RCT) of lipid dosing (usual and reduced) with treatment groups balanced between cycled or continuous phototherapy assignment. Eligible infants are born at ≤ 750 g or < 27 weeks' gestational age enrolled in the NICHD Neonatal Research Network RCT of cycled or continuous phototherapy. Infants will randomize 1:1 to reduced or usual dose lipid assignment during the first 2 weeks after birth and stratified by phototherapy assignment. Free fatty acids and UB will be measured daily using a novel probe. BAER testing will be performed at 34-36 weeks postmenstrual age or prior to discharge. Blinded neurodevelopmental assessments will be performed at 22-26 months. Intention-to-treat analyses will be performed with generalized linear mixed models with lipid dose and phototherapy assignments as random effects covariates, and assessment for interactions. Bayesian analyses will be performed as a secondary analysis.

DISCUSSION

Pragmatic trials are needed to evaluate whether lipid emulsion dosing modifies the effect of phototherapy on BN. This factorial design presents a unique opportunity to evaluate both therapies and their interaction. This study aims to address basic controversial questions about the relationships between lipid administration, free fatty acids, UB, and BN. Findings suggesting a reduced lipid dose can diminish the risk of BN would support the need for a large multicenter RCT of reduced versus usual lipid dosing.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical Trials.gov, NCT04584983, Registered 14 October 2020, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04584983 Protocol version: Version 3.2 (10/5/2022).

Factors associated with cholestasis in newborns with gastroschisis

OBJECTIVE

To describe the incidence and to analyze risk factors associated with cholestasis in neonates with gastroschisis.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study in a tertiary single center analyzing 181 newborns with gastroschisis between 2009 and 2020. The following risk factors associated with cholestasis were analyzed: gestational age, birth weight, type of gastroschisis, silo closure or immediate closure, days of parenteral nutrition, type of lipid emulsion, days of fasting, days to reach a full diet, days with central venous catheter, presence of infections, and outcomes.

RESULTS

Among the 176 patients evaluated, 41 (23.3%) evolved with cholestasis. In the univariate analysis, low birth weight (p=0.023), prematurity (p<0.001), lipid emulsion with medium-chain triglycerides and long-chain triglycerides (p=0.001) and death (p<0.001) were associated with cholestasis. In the multivariate analysis, patients who received lipid emulsion with fish oil instead of medium chain triglycerides/long chain triglycerides (MCT/LCT) emulsion had a lower risk of cholestasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that lipid emulsion with fish oil is associated with a lower risk of cholestasis in neonates with gastroschisis. However, this is a retrospective study and a prospective study should be performed to confirm the results.

The Asociación Mexicana de Gastroenterología consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of acute pancreatitis in children and adolescents

Acute pancreatitis (AP) and recurrent acute pancreatitis (RAP) are conditions, whose incidence is apparently on the rise. Despite the ever-increasing evidence regarding the management of AP in children and adults, therapeutic actions that could potentially affect having a poor prognosis in those patients, especially in the pediatric population, continue to be carried out. Therefore, the Asociación Mexicana de Gastroenterología convened a group of 24 expert pediatric gastroenterologists from different institutions and areas of Mexico, as well as 2 pediatric nutritionists and 2 specialists in pediatric surgery, to discuss different aspects of the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of AP and RAP in the pediatric population. The aim of this document is to present the consensus results. Different AP topics were addressed by 6 working groups, each of which reviewed the information and formulated statements considered pertinent for each module, on themes involving recommendations and points of debate, concerning diagnostic or therapeutic approaches. All the statements were presented and discussed. They were then evaluated through a Delphi process, with electronic and anonymous voting, to determine the level of agreement on the statements. A total of 29 statements were formulated, all of which reached above 75% agreement in the first round of voting.

Lipid Peroxidation and Antioxidative Capacity Are Unaltered in Transitional Breast Milk Exposed to Light from Women Giving Birth to Preterm Infants before 32 Weeks of Gestation

Breast milk (BM) is the primary nutrition for infants and has a high content of lipids. Preterm infants receive expressed BM via tube feeding, and they are frequently treated with phototherapy. When parenteral nutrition (PN) is exposed to light and/or phototherapy, lipid peroxidation (LPO) increases. By light-protecting PN, morbidity and mortality are reduced in preterm infants through the reduction of oxidative stress. We aimed to investigate whether light-protecting breast milk could reduce LPO. Twelve mothers giving birth to a preterm infants of less than 32 weeks of gestational age were included. Transitional BM was collected and divided into three study groups; light-protected, ward light and phototherapy light. Baseline samples were collected after expression and the exposures started within one hour. Feeding syringe samples were exposed to light for 30 up to 360 min. Nasogastric tube samples were run through a tube under the same light conditions. Samples were stored in -80 °C until analyses of malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). There were no significant differences in MDA, 4-HNE or TAC levels observed between the different study groups. This study indicates that the light exposure of expressed transitional BM does not affect LPO and the levels of MDA, 4-HNE or TAC.

Early Nutrition Must Be Safe and Should Have Positive Impacts on Long-Term Health

The Special Issue entitled 'The Role of Feeding Practice and Early Nutrition in Infant Growth, Metabolism and Body Composition' examines the long-term outcomes of early nutrition in both preterm and term infants [...].

An Overview of Short-Bowel Syndrome in Pediatric Patients: Focus on Clinical Management and Prevention of Complications

Short-bowel syndrome (SBS) in pediatric age is defined as a malabsorptive state, resulting from congenital malformations, significant small intestine surgical resection or disease-associated loss of absorption. SBS is the leading cause of intestinal failure in children and the underlying cause in 50% of patients on home parental nutrition. It is a life-altering and life-threatening disease due to the inability of the residual intestinal function to maintain nutritional homeostasis of protein, fluid, electrolyte or micronutrient without parenteral or enteral supplementation. The use of parenteral nutrition (PN) has improved medical care in SBS, decreasing mortality and improving the overall prognosis. However, the long-term use of PN is associated with the incidence of many complications, including liver disease and catheter-associated malfunction and bloodstream infections (CRBSIs). This manuscript is a narrative review of the current available evidence on the management of SBS in the pediatric population, focusing on prognostic factors and outcome. The literature review showed that in recent years, the standardization of management has demonstrated to improve the quality of life in these complex patients. Moreover, the development of knowledge in clinical practice has led to a reduction in mortality and morbidity. Diagnostic and therapeutic decisions should be made by a multidisciplinary team that includes neonatologists, pediatric surgeons, gastroenterologists, pediatricians, nutritionists and nurses. A significant improvement in prognosis can occur through the careful monitoring of nutritional status, avoiding dependence on PN and favoring an early introduction of enteral nutrition, and through the prevention, diagnosis and aggressive treatment of CRSBIs and SIBO. Multicenter initiatives, such as research consortium or data registries, are mandatory in order to personalize the management of these patients, improve their quality of life and reduce the cost of care.

Assessment of the Adherence to ESPGHAN 2018 Guidelines in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of the Ghent University Hospital: A Retrospective Study

Parenteral nutrition (PN) is a standard of care for preterm infants in the first postnatal days. The European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) has updated their guideline recommendations on PN in 2018. However, data on actual 2018 guideline adherence in clinical practice are sparse. In this retrospective study, conducted at the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of Ghent University Hospital, we analyzed the ESPGHAN 2018 PN guideline adherence and growth for 86 neonates admitted to the NICU. Analyses were stratified by birth weight (<1000 g, 1000 to <1500 g, ≥1500 g). We documented the provisions for enteral nutrition (EN) and PN, and we tested the combined EN and PN provisions for ESPGHAN 2018 adherence. The nutrition protocols showed a high adherence to PN guidelines in terms of carbohydrate provisions, yet lipid provisions for EN and PN often exceeded the recommended maximum of 4 g/kg/d; although, PN lipid intakes maxed out at 3.6 g/kg/d. Protein provisions tended to fall below the recommended minimum of 2.5 g/kg/d for preterm infants and 1.5 g/kg/d for term neonates. The energy provisions also tended to fall below the minimum recommendations, especially for neonates with a birth weight (BW) < 1000 g. Over a mean PN duration of 17.1 ± 11.4 d, the median weekly Fenton Z-scores changes for length, weight, and head circumference were positive for all BW groups. Future studies have to assess how protocols adapt to current guidelines, and how this affects short- and long-term growth across different BW groups. In conclusion, the reported findings provide real-world evidence regarding the effect of ESPGHAN 2018 PN guideline adherence, and they demonstrate how standardized neonatal PN solutions can safeguard stable growth during NICU stays.