1
|
van Prehn J, Crobach MJT, Baktash A, Duszenko N, Kuijper EJ. Diagnostic Guidance for C. difficile Infections. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1435:33-56. [PMID: 38175470 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-42108-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Diagnosis of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) can be challenging. First of all, there has been debate on which of the two reference assays, cell cytotoxicity neutralization assay (CCNA) or toxigenic culture (TC), should be considered the gold standard for CDI detection. Although the CCNA suffers most from suboptimal storage conditions and subsequent toxin degradation, TC is reported to falsely increase CDI detection rates as it cannot differentiate CDI patients from patients asymptomatically colonised by toxigenic C. difficile. Several rapid assays are available for CDI detection and fall into three broad categories: (1) enzyme immunoassays for glutamate dehydrogenase, (2) enzyme immunoassays or single-molecule array assays for toxins A/B and (3) nucleic acid amplification tests detecting toxin genes. All three categories have their own limitations, being suboptimal specificity and/or sensitivity or the inability to discern colonised patients from CDI patients. In light of these limitations, multi-step algorithmic testing has been advocated by international guidelines (IDSA/SHEA and ESCMID) in order to optimize diagnostic accuracy. As a result, a survey performed in 2018-2019 in Europe revealed that most of all hospital sites reported using more than one test to diagnose CDI. CDI incidence rates are also influenced by sample selection criteria, as several studies have shown that if not all unformed stool samples are tested for CDI, many cases may be missed due to an absence of clinical suspicion. Since methods for diagnosing CDI remain imperfect, there has been a growing interest in alternative testing strategies like faecal microbiota biomarkers, immune modulating interleukins, cytokines and imaging methods. At the moment, these alternative methods might play an adjunctive role, but they are not suitable to replace conventional CDI testing strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joffrey van Prehn
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Centre for Infectious Diseases (LU-CID), Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands.
- ESCMID Study Group for C. difficile (ESGCD) and Study Group for Host and Microbiota Interaction (ESGHAMI), Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Monique J T Crobach
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Centre for Infectious Diseases (LU-CID), Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Amoe Baktash
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Centre for Infectious Diseases (LU-CID), Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nikolas Duszenko
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Centre for Infectious Diseases (LU-CID), Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ed J Kuijper
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Centre for Infectious Diseases (LU-CID), Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
- ESCMID Study Group for C. difficile (ESGCD) and Study Group for Host and Microbiota Interaction (ESGHAMI), Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jolivet S, Couturier J, Grohs P, Vilfaillot A, Zahar JR, Frange P, Casetta A, Moulin V, Lawrence C, Baune P, Bourgeois C, Bouffier A, Laussucq C, Sienzonit L, Picard S, Podglajen I, Kassis-Chikhani N, Barbut F. Prevalence and risk factors of toxigenic Clostridioides difficile asymptomatic carriage in 11 French hospitals. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1221363. [PMID: 37547619 PMCID: PMC10402895 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1221363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) incidence has increased over the last 20 years. Studies suggest that asymptomatic carriers may be an important reservoir of C. difficile in healthcare settings. We conducted a point prevalence study to estimate the toxigenic C. difficile asymptomatic carriage rate and the associated risk factors in patients >3 years old. Between September 16, 2019 and January 15, 2020, all patients hospitalized in 11 healthcare facilities in the Paris urban area were included in the study. They were screened on the day of the survey for toxigenic C. difficile carriage by rectal swab and interviewed. Isolates were characterized by PCR ribotyping and multiplex PCR targeting toxin genes. A logistic regression model was used to determine the risk factors associated with toxigenic C. difficile asymptomatic carriage using uni- and multivariate analysis in the subpopulation of patients >3 years old. During the study period, 2,389 patients were included and screened. The median age was 62 years (interquartile range 35-78 years) and 1,153 were male (48.3%). Nineteen patients had a previous CDI (0.9%). Overall, 185/2389 patients were positive for C. difficile (7.7%), including 93 toxigenic strains (3.9%): 77 (82.8%) were asymptomatic (prevalence 3.2%) whereas 12 (12.9%) were diarrheic. Prevalences of toxigenic C. difficile were 3.5% in patients >3 years old and 7.0% in ≤3 years old subjects, respectively. Toxigenic strains mainly belonged to PCR ribotypes 106 (n = 14, 15.0%), 014 (n = 12, 12.9%), and 020 (n = 10, 10.8%). Among toxigenic strains, 6 (6.4%) produced the binary toxin. In multivariate analysis, two factors were positively associated with toxigenic C. difficile asymptomatic carriage in patients >3 years old: multidrug-resistant organisms co-carriage [adjusted Odd Ratio (aOR) 2.3, CI 95% 1.2-4.7, p = 0.02] and previous CDI (aOR 5.8, CI 95% 1.2-28.6, p = 0.03). Conversely, consumption of raw milk products were associated with reduced risk of toxigenic C. difficile colonization (aOR 0.5, CI 95% 0.2-0.9, p = 0.01). We showed that there was a low prevalence of asymptomatic toxigenic C. difficile carriage in hospitalized patients. Consumption of raw milk prevents toxigenic C. difficile colonization, probably due to the barrier effect of milk-associated bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jolivet
- Unité de prévention du risque infectieux, Hôpital Saint Antoine, Paris, France
| | - Jeanne Couturier
- Laboratoire de microbiologie de l’environnement, Hôpital Saint Antoine, Paris, France
- National Reference Laboratory for Clostridioides difficile, Paris, France
| | - Patrick Grohs
- Laboratoire de microbiologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Aurélie Vilfaillot
- Unité de Recherche Clinique, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
- INSERM Centre d’Investigation Clinique 1418, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Ralph Zahar
- Unité de Prévention du Risque infectieux, Hôpitaux Avicenne, Bobigny/Jean Verdier, Bondy/René Muret, Sevran, France
| | - Pierre Frange
- Équipe de Prévention du Risque infectieux, Laboratoire de microbiologie clinique, Hôpital Necker – Enfants malades, Groupe hospitalier Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Paris (APHP) Centre – Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Anne Casetta
- Équipe de Prévention du Risque infectieux, Hôpital Cochin, Paris, France
| | - Véronique Moulin
- Équipe de Prévention du Risque infectieux, Hôpitaux Corentin Celton/Vaugirard, Issy-les-Moulineaux, France
| | - Christine Lawrence
- Équipe de Prévention du Risque infectieux, GHU Paris-Saclay site R. Poincaré, Garches, France
| | - Patricia Baune
- Équipe de Prévention du Risque infectieux, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Villejuif, France
| | - Cléo Bourgeois
- Unité de Recherche Clinique, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
- INSERM Centre d’Investigation Clinique 1418, Paris, France
| | - Axel Bouffier
- Unité de Recherche Clinique, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
- INSERM Centre d’Investigation Clinique 1418, Paris, France
| | - Claudine Laussucq
- Laboratoire de microbiologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Lydia Sienzonit
- Laboratoire de microbiologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Simon Picard
- Laboratoire de microbiologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Podglajen
- Laboratoire de microbiologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Najiby Kassis-Chikhani
- Équipe de Prévention du Risque infectieux, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Barbut
- Unité de prévention du risque infectieux, Hôpital Saint Antoine, Paris, France
- Laboratoire de microbiologie de l’environnement, Hôpital Saint Antoine, Paris, France
- National Reference Laboratory for Clostridioides difficile, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Detection of Plasmid-Mediated Resistance to Metronidazole in Clostridioides difficile from River Water. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0080622. [PMID: 35950844 PMCID: PMC9431275 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00806-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is one of the most important human pathogens. The identification of its possible sources is important for the understanding of C. difficile infection (CDI) epidemiology. A total of 16 water samples from wastewater and surface water in South Moravia in the Czech Republic and 82 samples of fish and gulls were collected between May and July 2019. C. difficile isolates were cultured by direct plating and after enrichment on chromogenic media. Susceptibility testing to eight antimicrobials was performed by Etest. C. difficile isolates were characterized by ribotyping, multilocus sequence typing, multilocus tandem repeats analysis, and toxin gene detection. Samples from fish and gulls were C. difficile negative; a total of 15 C. difficile isolates from 8 out of 16 water samples were cultured (6 out of 14 surface water samples yielded 6 isolates, and 2 out of 2 wastewater samples yielded 9 isolates). Direct plating was culture positive in 6 out of 16 samples (12 isolates), and enrichment culture was positive in an additional 2 out of 16 samples (3 isolates). Twelve different ribotyping profiles and 14 sequence types of clades 1, 4, and 5 were identified. Five isolates did not carry genes for toxins, and eight isolates carried genes for toxins A and B; the remaining two isolates (RT078) carried the genes for toxins A, B, and binary. All C. difficile isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin, moxifloxacin, tetracycline, and vancomycin and resistant to ciprofloxacin. A high level of erythromycin resistance (>256 mg/L) was detected in eight isolates. Clindamycin resistance was found in 14 isolates, 6 of which showed a high level of resistance (>256 mg/L) and carried ermB. Surprisingly, one isolate (RT010, ST15) showed resistance to metronidazole (12 mg/L) with the presence of the plasmid pCD-METRO. In conclusion, a diverse spectrum of C. difficile strains was found in wastewater and surface water. A recently discovered plasmid-bound resistance to metronidazole was detected in C. difficile from the surface water sample. IMPORTANCE The combination of direct plating and culture after enrichment was used in order to gain a spectrum of C. difficile ribotypes present in the water samples. Toxigenic C. difficile ribotypes detected in surface water and in wastewater treatment plants overlapped with those derived from patients with CDI and/or animals. Importantly, a recently discovered plasmid-mediated resistance to metronidazole, a drug used for the treatment of CDI, was detected in C. difficile from river water.
Collapse
|
4
|
Vendrik KE, Baktash A, Goeman JJ, Harmanus C, Notermans DW, de Greeff SC, Kuijper EJ. Comparison of trends in Clostridioides difficile infections in hospitalised patients during the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic: A retrospective sentinel surveillance study. Lancet Reg Health Eur 2022; 19:100424. [PMID: 35782989 PMCID: PMC9236856 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2022.100424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
|
5
|
Viprey VF, Davis GL, Benson AD, Ewin D, Spittal W, Vernon JJ, Rupnik M, Banz A, Allantaz F, Cleuziat P, Wilcox MH, Davies KA. A point-prevalence study on community and inpatient Clostridioides difficile infections (CDI): results from Combatting Bacterial Resistance in Europe CDI (COMBACTE-CDI), July to November 2018. Euro Surveill 2022; 27:2100704. [PMID: 35775426 PMCID: PMC9248264 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2022.27.26.2100704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BackgroundThere is a paucity of data on community-based Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) and how these compare with inpatient CDI.AimTo compare data on the populations with CDI in hospitals vs the community across 12 European countries.MethodsFor this point-prevalence study (July-November 2018), testing sites sent residual diagnostic material on sampling days to a coordinating laboratory for CDI testing and PCR ribotyping (n = 3,163). Information on whether CDI testing was requested at the original site was used to identify undiagnosed CDI. We used medical records to identify differences between healthcare settings in patient demographics and risk factors for detection of C. difficile with or without free toxin.ResultsThe CDI positivity rate was 4.4% (country range: 0-16.2) in hospital samples, and 1.3% (country range: 0-2.2%) in community samples. The highest prevalence of toxinotype IIIb (027, 181 and 176) was seen in eastern European countries (56%; 43/77), the region with the lowest testing rate (58%; 164/281). Different predisposing risk factors were observed (use of broad-spectrum penicillins in the community (OR: 8.09 (1.9-35.6), p = 0.01); fluoroquinolones/cephalosporins in hospitals (OR: 2.2 (1.2-4.3), p = 0.01; OR: 2.0 (1.1-3.7), p = 0.02)). Half of community CDI cases were undetected because of absence of clinical suspicion, accounting for three times more undiagnosed adults in the community compared with hospitals (ca 111,000 vs 37,000 cases/year in Europe).ConclusionThese findings support recommendations for improving diagnosis in patients presenting with diarrhoea in the community, to guide good practice to limit the spread of CDI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Virginie F Viprey
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Georgina L Davis
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony D Benson
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Duncan Ewin
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - William Spittal
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Jon J Vernon
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Maja Rupnik
- National Laboratory for Health, Environment and Food, Maribor, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Clostridioides difficile (ESGCD)
| | | | | | | | - Mark H Wilcox
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Clostridioides difficile (ESGCD)
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Kerrie A Davies
- Healthcare Associated Infections Research Group, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
- European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Study Group for Clostridioides difficile (ESGCD)
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sopena N, Wang-Wang JH, Casas I, Mateu L, Castellà L, García-Quesada MJ, Gutierrez S, Llibre JM, Pedro-Botet ML, Fernandez-Rivas G. Impact of the Introduction of a Two-Step Laboratory Diagnostic Algorithm in the Incidence and Earlier Diagnosis of Clostridioides difficile Infection. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10051075. [PMID: 35630517 PMCID: PMC9144429 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10051075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Our aim was to determine changes in the incidence of CD infection (CDI) following the introduction of a two-step diagnostic algorithm and to analyze CDI cases diagnosed in the study period. We retrospectively studied CDI (January 2009 to July 2018) in adults diagnosed by toxin enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (2009−2012) or toxin-EIA + polymerase chain reaction (PCR) algorithm (2013 onwards). A total of 443 patients with a first episode of CDI were included, 297 (67.1%) toxin-EIA-positive and 146 (32.9%) toxin-EIA-negative/PCR-positive were only identified through the two-step algorithm including the PCR test. The incidence of CDI increased from 0.9 to 4.7/10,000 patient-days (p < 0.01) and 146 (32.9%) toxin-negative CDI were diagnosed. Testing rate increased from 24.4 to 59.5/10,000 patient-days (p < 0.01) and the percentage of positive stools rose from 3.9% to 12.5% (p < 0.01). CD toxin-positive patients had a higher frequency of severe presentation and a lower rate of immunosuppressive drugs and inflammatory bowel disease. Mortality (16.3%) was significantly higher in patients with hematological neoplasm, intensive care unit admission and complicated disease. Recurrences (14.9%) were significantly higher with proton pump inhibitor exposure. The two-step diagnostic algorithm facilitates earlier diagnosis, potentially impacting patient outcomes and nosocomial spread. CD-toxin-positive patients had a more severe clinical presentation, probably due to increased CD bacterial load with higher toxin concentration. This early and easy marker should alert clinicians of potentially more severe outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nieves Sopena
- Infectious Diseases Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Carretera de Canyet s/n, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.M.); (S.G.); (J.M.L.); (M.L.P.-B.)
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (I.C.); (G.F.-R.)
- IGTP, Health Sciences Research Institute Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-934-978-510
| | - Jun Hao Wang-Wang
- Microbiology Department, Clinical Laboratory North Metropolitan Area, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain;
| | - Irma Casas
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (I.C.); (G.F.-R.)
- Preventive Medicine Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Lourdes Mateu
- Infectious Diseases Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Carretera de Canyet s/n, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.M.); (S.G.); (J.M.L.); (M.L.P.-B.)
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (I.C.); (G.F.-R.)
- IGTP, Health Sciences Research Institute Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Laia Castellà
- Infection Control Nurse, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.C.); (M.J.G.-Q.)
| | - María José García-Quesada
- Infection Control Nurse, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.C.); (M.J.G.-Q.)
| | - Sara Gutierrez
- Infectious Diseases Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Carretera de Canyet s/n, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.M.); (S.G.); (J.M.L.); (M.L.P.-B.)
| | - Josep M. Llibre
- Infectious Diseases Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Carretera de Canyet s/n, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.M.); (S.G.); (J.M.L.); (M.L.P.-B.)
| | - M. Luisa Pedro-Botet
- Infectious Diseases Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Carretera de Canyet s/n, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.M.); (S.G.); (J.M.L.); (M.L.P.-B.)
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (I.C.); (G.F.-R.)
- IGTP, Health Sciences Research Institute Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Gema Fernandez-Rivas
- Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain; (I.C.); (G.F.-R.)
- Microbiology Department, Clinical Laboratory North Metropolitan Area, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain;
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Brajerova M, Zikova J, Krutova M. Clostridioides difficile epidemiology in the Middle and the Far East. Anaerobe 2022; 74:102542. [PMID: 35240336 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clostridioides difficile is an important pathogen of healthcare-associated gastrointestinal infections. Recently, an increased number of C. difficile infection (CDI) surveillance data has been reported from Asia. The aim of this review is to summarize the data on the prevalence, distribution and molecular epidemiology of CDI in the Middle and the Far East. METHODS Literature was drawn from a search of PubMed up to September 30, 2021. RESULTS The meta-analysis of data from 111 studies revealed the pooled CDI prevalence rate in the Middle and the Far East of 12.4% (95% CI 11.4-13.3); 48 studies used PCR for CDI laboratory diagnoses. The predominant types (RT)/sequence type (ST) differ between individual countries (24 studies, 14 countries). Frequently found RTs were 001, 002, 012, 017, 018 and 126; RT017 was predominant in the Far East. The epidemic RT027 was detected in 8 countries (22 studies), but its predominance was reported only in three studies (Israel and Iran). The contamination of vegetable and meat or meat products and/or intestinal carriage of C. difficile in food and companion animals have been reported; the C. difficile RTs/STs identified overlapped with those identified in humans. CONCLUSIONS A large number of studies on CDI prevalence in humans from the Middle and the Far East have been published; countries with no available data were identified. The number of studies on C. difficile from non-human sources is limited. Comparative genomic studies of isolates from different sources are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Brajerova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslava Zikova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic; Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Czech Republic.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Marcela K, de Meij GT, Fidelma F, Richard DJ, Mark WH, Ed KJ. How to: Clostridioides difficile infection in children. Clin Microbiol Infect 2022; 28:1085-1090. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
9
|
Lorine D, Céline D, Caroline LM, Frédéric B, Lorette H, Julie B, Laure M, Christine Z, Typhaine P, Sandra R, Emmanuelle H, Rabab SZ, Jeanne C, Anne-Marie P. Influence of operating conditions on the persistence of E. coli, enterococci, Clostridium perfringens and Clostridioides difficile in semi-continuous mesophilic anaerobic reactors. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 134:32-41. [PMID: 34403994 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the combined effect of hydraulic retention time (HRT), organic loading rate (OLR) and heat pretreatment of manure (70 °C, 1 h) on the fate of E. coli, enterococci, C. perfringens, C. difficile, and on chemical parameters (volatile fatty acids and ammonia) that may inactivate pathogens. Semi-continuous mesophilic anaerobic reactors were fed with pig manure and horse feed. The operating conditions were 2, 3, 4 COD.L-1.d-1 (OLR), 24, 35, 46 days (HRT) and use or not of a thermal pretreatment. The levels of the chemical parameters did not reach concentrations capable of inactivating the four bacteria. Anaerobic digestion led to a Log10 removal > 3 (E. coli), 0.9-2.1 (enterococci), 0.1-0.6 (C. perfringens) and 0-1 (C. difficile). Increasing HRT only reduced the concentration of E. coli in the digestate. Increasing OLR reduced the Log10 removal of enterococci and C. difficile. The heat pretreatment led to non-detection of E. coli in the digestate, reduced the concentration of C. perfringens by 0.8-1.3 Log10 and increased the concentration of C. difficile by 0.04-0.7 Log10. Enterococci, not detected in the heated manure, were present in the digestate. The distribution of genes encoding virulence factors of C. difficile (tcdA and tcdB) and C. perfringens (cpa, cpb2 and cpb) was not impacted by anaerobic digestion or by the heat pretreatment. Enterococci, C. perfringens, C. difficile were present in the digestate at relatively stable concentrations regardless of the operating conditions, indicating that even with heat pretreatment, the biosafety of digestate cannot be guaranteed in mesophilic conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Derongs Lorine
- INRAE, OPAALE Research Unit, CS 64427, F-35044 Rennes, France
| | - Druilhe Céline
- INRAE, OPAALE Research Unit, CS 64427, F-35044 Rennes, France
| | - Le Maréchal Caroline
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, BP53, F-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Barbut Frédéric
- National Reference Laboratory for Clostridium difficile, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Assistance Publique- Hôpitaux de Paris, 34 rue Crozatier, 75012 Paris, France; UMR INSERM S-1139, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université de Paris, France
| | | | - Buffet Julie
- INRAE, OPAALE Research Unit, CS 64427, F-35044 Rennes, France
| | - Martin Laure
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, BP53, F-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | | | - Poezevara Typhaine
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, BP53, F-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Rouxel Sandra
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, BP53, F-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Houard Emmanuelle
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, BP53, F-22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Syed Zaidi Rabab
- National Reference Laboratory for Clostridium difficile, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Assistance Publique- Hôpitaux de Paris, 34 rue Crozatier, 75012 Paris, France; UMR INSERM S-1139, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université de Paris, France
| | - Couturier Jeanne
- National Reference Laboratory for Clostridium difficile, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Assistance Publique- Hôpitaux de Paris, 34 rue Crozatier, 75012 Paris, France; UMR INSERM S-1139, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université de Paris, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
A Review of Clostridioides difficile Infection and Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2021; 50:323-340. [PMID: 34024444 DOI: 10.1016/j.gtc.2021.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) occur frequently among adults. The pathophysiology of CDI is related to disruption of normal gut flora and risk factors include hospitalization, use of antibiotic therapy, and older age. Clinical manifestations can range from mild disease to toxic megacolon. Diagnosis is challenging and is based on a combination of clinical symptoms and diagnostic tests. Therapy includes cessation of antibiotics, or use of other agents depending on the severity of illness. Many novel agents for the treatment and prevention of CDI show promise and are under investigation.
Collapse
|
11
|
Zacharioudakis IM, Zervou FN, Phillips MS, Aguero-Rosenfeld ME. Rate and consequences of missed Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection diagnosis from nonreporting of Clostridioides difficile results of the multiplex GI PCR panel: experience from two-hospitals. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 100:115346. [PMID: 33647544 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2021.115346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION It is common among microbiology laboratories to blind the Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) BioFire FilmArray GI Panel result in fear of overdiagnosis. METHODS We examined the rate of missed community-onset C. difficile infection (CDI) diagnosis and associated outcomes. Adult patients with FilmArray GI Panel positive for C. difficile on hospital admission who lacked dedicated C. difficile testing were included. RESULTS Among 144 adults with a FilmArray Panel positive for C. difficile, 18 did not have concurrent dedicated C. difficile testing. Eight patients were categorized as possible, 5 as probable and 4 as definite cases of missed CDI diagnosis. We observed associated delays in initiation of appropriate therapy, intensive care unit admissions, hospital readmissions, colorectal surgery and death/discharge to hospice. Five out of 17 lacked risk factors for CDI. CONCLUSION The practice of concealing C. difficile FilmArray GI Panel results needs to be reconsidered in patients presenting with community-onset colitis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis M Zacharioudakis
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Fainareti N Zervou
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael S Phillips
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Maria E Aguero-Rosenfeld
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pathology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kampouri E, Croxatto A, Prod’hom G, Guery B. Clostridioides difficile Infection, Still a Long Way to Go. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10030389. [PMID: 33498428 PMCID: PMC7864166 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10030389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is an increasingly common pathogen both within and outside the hospital and is responsible for a large clinical spectrum from asymptomatic carriage to complicated infection associated with a high mortality. While diagnostic methods have considerably progressed over the years, the optimal diagnostic algorithm is still debated and there is no single diagnostic test that can be used as a standalone test. More importantly, the heterogeneity in diagnostic practices between centers along with the lack of robust surveillance systems in all countries and an important degree of underdiagnosis due to lack of clinical suspicion in the community, hinder a more accurate evaluation of the burden of disease. Our improved understanding of the physiopathology of CDI has allowed some significant progress in the treatment of CDI, including a broader use of fidaxomicine, the use of fecal microbiota transplantation for multiples recurrences and newer approaches including antibodies, vaccines and new molecules, already developed or in the pipeline. However, the management of CDI recurrences and severe infections remain challenging and the main question remains: how to best target these often expensive treatments to the right population. In this review we discuss current diagnostic approaches, treatment and potential prevention strategies, with a special focus on recent advances in the field as well as areas of uncertainty and unmet needs and how to address them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eleftheria Kampouri
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland;
| | - Antony Croxatto
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Medical Laboratory and Pathology, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (A.C.); (G.P.)
| | - Guy Prod’hom
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Medical Laboratory and Pathology, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (A.C.); (G.P.)
| | - Benoit Guery
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-21-314-1643
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Fidaxomicin versus metronidazole, vancomycin and their combination for initial episode, first recurrence and severe Clostridioides difficile infection - An observational cohort study. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 103:226-233. [PMID: 33188906 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of different antibiotic regimens for the treatment of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) with regard to the CDI episode number and disease severity. METHODS An observation cohort study included 271 CDI patients hospitalised between 2013-2016. Univariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between patients' clinical outcome (sustained clinical cure or recurrence) in a 60-day follow-up and the antibiotic regimen used (oral metronidazole, oral vancomycin, combination of oral vancomycin and metronidazole, oral fidaxomicin). Subgroup analyses, based on CDI episode number and severity, were performed. RESULTS In the overall population, fidaxomicin was superior to metronidazole, vancomycin or their combination, for a sustained clinical response and in the prevention of recurrent CDI (rCDI). In the subgroup analyses, fidaxomicin was superior to vancomycin or metronidazole for a sustained clinical response and in the prevention of rCDI in the initial episode, first recurrence and non-severe cases. In the oral treatment of severe CDI, fidaxomicin had a similar treatment outcome to vancomycin and none of the antibiotic treatments were superior in the prevention of rCDI. Fidaxomicin, vancomycin, or a combination of metronidazole and vancomycin, had similar outcomes for sustained clinical response and prevention of rCDI in patients with multiple rCDI. CONCLUSION Fidaxomicin was superior to metronidazole or vancomycin for the treatment of the initial episode, first recurrence, and non-severe CDI.
Collapse
|
14
|
Sholeh M, Krutova M, Forouzesh M, Mironov S, Sadeghifard N, Molaeipour L, Maleki A, Kouhsari E. Antimicrobial resistance in Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile derived from humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2020; 9:158. [PMID: 32977835 PMCID: PMC7517813 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-020-00815-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is an important pathogen of healthcare- associated diarrhea, however, an increase in the occurrence of C. difficile infection (CDI) outside hospital settings has been reported. The accumulation of antimicrobial resistance in C. difficile can increase the risk of CDI development and/or its spread. The limited number of antimicrobials for the treatment of CDI is matter of some concern. Objectives In order to summarize the data on antimicrobial resistance to C. difficile derived from humans, a systematic review and meta-analysis were performed. Methods We searched five bibliographic databases: (MEDLINE [PubMed], Scopus, Embase, Cochrane Library and Web of Science) for studies that focused on antimicrobial susceptibility testing in C. difficile and were published between 1992 and 2019. The weighted pooled resistance (WPR) for each antimicrobial agent was calculated using a random- effects model. Results A total of 111 studies were included. The WPR for metronidazole and vancomycin was 1.0% (95% CI 0–3%) and 1% (95% CI 0–2%) for the breakpoint > 2 mg/L and 0% (95% CI 0%) for breakpoint ≥32 μg/ml. Rifampin and tigecycline had a WPRs of 37.0% (95% CI 18–58%) and 1% (95% CI 0–3%), respectively. The WPRs for the other antimicrobials were as follows: ciprofloxacin 95% (95% CI 85–100%), moxifloxacin 32% (95% CI 25–40%), clindamycin 59% (95% CI 53–65%), amoxicillin/clavulanate 0% (0–0%), piperacillin/tazobactam 0% (0–0%) and ceftriaxone 47% (95% CI 29–65%). Tetracycline had a WPR 20% (95% CI 14–27%) and meropenem showed 0% (95% CI 0–1%); resistance to fidaxomicin was reported in one isolate (0.08%). Conclusion Resistance to metronidazole, vancomycin, fidaxomicin, meropenem and piperacillin/tazobactam is reported rarely. From the alternative CDI drug treatments, tigecycline had a lower resistance rate than rifampin. The high-risk antimicrobials for CDI development showed a high level of resistance, the highest was seen in the second generation of fluoroquinolones and clindamycin; amoxicillin/clavulanate showed almost no resistance. Tetracycline resistance was present in one fifth of human clinical C. difficile isolates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Sholeh
- Dept. of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Marcela Krutova
- Dept. of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Mehdi Forouzesh
- Assistant professor of Legal medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine organization, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sergey Mironov
- Department of propaedeutics of dental diseases, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, Russia
| | - Nourkhoda Sadeghifard
- Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
| | - Leila Molaeipour
- Dept. of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Maleki
- Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Kouhsari
- Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran. .,Laboratory Sciences Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran. .,Student Research Committee, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Masarikova M, Simkova I, Plesko M, Eretova V, Krutova M, Cizek A. The Colonisation of Calves in Czech Large-Scale Dairy Farms by Clonally-Related Clostridioides difficile of the Sequence Type 11 Represented by Ribotypes 033 and 126. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060901. [PMID: 32549307 PMCID: PMC7356540 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate a possible Clostridioides difficile reservoir in the Czech Republic, we performed a study in 297 calves from 29 large-scale dairy farms. After enrichment, faecal samples were inoculated onto selective agar for C. difficile. From the 297 samples, 44 C. difficile isolates were cultured (prevalence of 14.8%, 10 farms). The Holstein breed and use of digestate were associated with C. difficile colonisation (p ˂ 0.05). C. difficile isolates belonged to the ribotype/sequence type: RT033/ST11 (n = 37), RT126/ST11 (n = 6) and RT046/ST35 (n = 1). A multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis revealed four clonal complexes of RT033 isolates and one clonal complex of RT126 isolates. All isolates were sensitive to amoxicillin, metronidazole and vancomycin. Forty isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin, twenty-one to clindamycin, seven to erythromycin, seven to tetracycline and six to moxifloxacin. Moxifloxacin resistant isolates revealed an amino-acid substitution Thr82Ile in the GyrA. In conclusion, the calves of Holstein breed from farms using digestate as a product of bio-gas plants are more likely to be colonised by clonally-related C. difficile of ST 11 represented by ribotypes 033 and 126. The identified resistance to moxifloxacin with a Thr82Ile substitution in the GyrA highlights the need for further monitoring by the "One health approach".
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martina Masarikova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Simkova
- Ruminant and Swine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Plesko
- Ruminant and Swine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Eretova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, 150 06 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Krutova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Charles University, 150 06 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Alois Cizek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Han SH, Yi J, Kim JH, Moon HW. Investigation of Intestinal Microbiota and Fecal Calprotectin in Non-Toxigenic and Toxigenic Clostridioides difficile Colonization and Infection. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8060882. [PMID: 32545219 PMCID: PMC7356005 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to evaluate the composition of the intestinal microbiota and level of fecal calprotectin in Clostridioides difficile-colonized patients. We included 102 C. difficile non-colonized (group I), 93 C. difficile colonized subjects (group II), and 89 diarrhea patients with C. difficile (group III). Chao1 index for alpha diversity and principal coordinate analysis was performed for beta diversity using QIIME. The mean relative abundance in each group was compared at the phylum and genus levels. Fecal calprotectin was measured using EliA calprotectin (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Group II showed significantly lower levels of Sutterella, Blautia, Ruminococcus, Faecalibacterium, Bilophila, and Ruminococcaceae and higher levels of Enterobacteriaceae compared to group I (p = 0.012, 0.003, 0.002, 0.001, 0.027, 0.022, and 0.036, respectively). Toxigenic C. difficile colonized subjects showed significantly lower levels of Prevotella, Phascolarctobacterium, Succinivibrio, Blautia, and higher levels of Bacteroides. The level of fecal calprotectin in group III was significantly higher than those in group I and group II (p < 0.001 for both). These data could be valuable in understanding C. difficile colonization process and the microbiota and inflammatory markers could be further studied to differentiate colonization from CDI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hee Han
- BioCore Co. Ltd., Biotechnology, Yongin 64844, Korea;
| | - Joowon Yi
- Samkwang Medical Laboratories, Seoul 06742, Korea;
| | - Ji-Hoon Kim
- Advanced BioVision Inc., Incheon 21999, Korea;
| | - Hee-Won Moon
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05030, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-2030-5583; Fax: +82-2-2030-5587
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Le Maréchal C, Gateau C, Poezevara T, Couturier J, Rouxel S, Syed Zaidi R, Houard E, Pourcher AM, Denis M, Barbut F. Characterization of Clostridioides difficile strains isolated from manure and digestate in five agricultural biogas plants. Anaerobe 2020; 62:102180. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2020.102180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
|
18
|
Olmedo M, Alcalá L, Valerio M, Marín M, Onori R, Reigadas E, Muñoz P, Bouza E. Three different patterns of positive Clostridium difficile laboratory tests. A comparison of clinical behavior. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 97:115050. [PMID: 32482380 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2020.115050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile (CD) diagnosis is very varied and under discussion. Different research groups disagree on the clinical significance of patients with negative direct toxin and positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or even more with direct toxin and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) both negatives, but CD detected by toxigenic culture (TC). The objective was to analyze the characteristics of patients with 3 different diagnostic criteria. We compared these 3 groups of patients: group 1: (GDH+/direct toxin+/PCR+), group 2: (GDH+/direct toxin-/PCR+) and group 3: (GDH-/direct toxin-/PCR not done/TC+). The proportion of patients with CD infection (CDI) (not colonization) for groups 1 to 3 was, respectively, 90.3%, 95.4%, and 59.1%. No differences between severity (40.8%, 38.5%, 27.3%), recurrence (20.3%, 24.1%, 7.6%), or related mortality (12.5%, 5.2%, 0%) were found within the 3 groups of patients. Laboratory clinical results should not be used as the only tool to differentiate CDI versus colonization or severity. We recommend that PCR or a second-look TC be performed on all patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Olmedo
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Luis Alcalá
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Maricela Valerio
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes Marín
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raffaella Onori
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Reigadas
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricia Muñoz
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Bouza
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain; CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES CB06/06/0058), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI3/00687, PI16/00490, PIE16/00055)
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Gateau C, Deboscker S, Couturier J, Vogel T, Schmitt E, Muller J, Ménard C, Turcan B, Zaidi RS, Youssouf A, Lavigne T, Barbut F. Local outbreak of Clostridioides difficile PCR-Ribotype 018 investigated by multi locus variable number tandem repeat analysis, whole genome multi locus sequence typing and core genome single nucleotide polymorphism typing. Anaerobe 2019; 60:102087. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2019.102087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
20
|
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium) is a major cause of healthcare associated diarrhea, and is increasingly present in the community. Historically, C difficile infection was considered easy to diagnose and treat. Over the past two decades, however, diagnostic techniques have changed in line with a greater understanding of the physiopathology of C difficile infection and the use of new therapeutic molecules. The evolution of diagnosis showed there was an important under- and misdiagnosis of C difficile infection, emphasizing the importance of algorithms recommended by European and North American infectious diseases societies to obtain a reliable diagnosis. Previously, metronidazole was considered the reference drug to treat C difficile infection, but more recently vancomycin and other newer drugs are shown to have higher cure rates. Recurrence of infection represents a key parameter in the evaluation of new drugs, and the challenge is to target the right population with the adapted therapeutic molecule. In multiple recurrences, fecal microbiota transplantation is recommended. New approaches, including antibodies, vaccines, and new molecules are already available or in the pipeline, but more data are needed to support the inclusion of these in practice guidelines. This review aims to provide a baseline for clinicians to understand and stratify their choice in the diagnosis and treatment of C difficile infection based on the most recent data available.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Guery
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- French Group of Faecal Microbiota Transplantation
- European Study Group on Host and Microbiota Interactions
- European Study Group on Clostridium difficile
| | - Tatiana Galperine
- Infectious Diseases Service, Department of Medicine, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- French Group of Faecal Microbiota Transplantation
| | - Frédéric Barbut
- National Reference Laboratory for Clostridium difficile, Paris, France
- INSERM, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
- European Study Group on Clostridium difficile
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Colomb-Cotinat M, Assouvie L, Durand J, Daniau C, Leon L, Maugat S, Soing-Altrach S, Gateau C, Couturier J, Arnaud I, Astagneau P, Berger-Carbonne A, Barbut F. Epidemiology of Clostridioides difficile infections, France, 2010 to 2017. Euro Surveill 2019; 24:1800638. [PMID: 31481147 PMCID: PMC6724465 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.35.1800638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundClostridioides difficile is a leading cause of healthcare-associated diarrhoea in middle and high-income countries. Up to 2018, there has been no systematic, annual surveillance for C. difficile infections (CDI) in France.AimsTo provide an updated overview of the epidemiology of CDI in France between 2010 and 2017 based on five different data sources.MethodsThis is a descriptive study of retrospective surveillance and alerts data. Incidence of CDI cases was estimated through the CDI incidence survey (2016) and data from the French National Uniform Hospital Discharge Database (PMSI; 2010-16). Testing frequency for CDI was estimated through the CDI incidence survey and point prevalence studies on healthcare-associated infections (HAI; 2012 and 2017). The national early warning response system for HAI (HAI-EWRS, 2012-17) and National Reference Laboratory data (2012-17) were used to follow the number of severe CDI cases and/or outbreaks.ResultsIn 2016, CDI incidence in acute care was 3.6 cases per 10,000 patient days (PD). There was a statistically significant increase in CDI incidence between 2010 and 2016 (+ 14% annually) and testing frequency was 47.4 per 10,000 PD. The number of CDI HAI-EWRS notifications decreased between 2015 and 2017 with only a few large outbreaks reported.ConclusionThe CDI incidence estimate increased from 2010, but remained below the European average of 7 per 10,000 PD in 2014; there were fewer severe cases or clusters reported in France. The consistency between PMSI and laboratory-based estimated CDI incidence could allow for more routine monitoring of CDI incidence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Colomb-Cotinat
- Santé publique France, Saint-Maurice, France
- These authors contributed equally and share first authorship
| | - Laetitia Assouvie
- Santé publique France, Saint-Maurice, France
- These authors contributed equally and share first authorship
| | | | - Côme Daniau
- Santé publique France, Saint-Maurice, France
| | - Lucie Leon
- Santé publique France, Saint-Maurice, France
| | | | | | - Cécile Gateau
- National reference laboratory for anaerobic bacteria and C. difficile, St Antoine Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Jeanne Couturier
- National reference laboratory for anaerobic bacteria and C. difficile, St Antoine Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Arnaud
- Regional center for prevention of healthcare associated infections, Paris, France
| | - Pascal Astagneau
- Regional center for prevention of healthcare associated infections, Paris, France
| | | | - Frédéric Barbut
- National reference laboratory for anaerobic bacteria and C. difficile, St Antoine Hospital, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Tschudin-Sutter S. Clostridioides difficile infection in outpatient settings - the need for studies on clinical impact. Clin Microbiol Infect 2019; 25:534-535. [PMID: 30802649 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2019.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Tschudin-Sutter
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Basel, University Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|