Interactive computer-based simulator for training in blade navigation and targeting in myringotomy

Defining the Learning Curve for Endoscopic Ear Skills Using a Modular Trainer: A Multi-Institutional Study

OBJECTIVE

Quantify the learning curve for endoscopic ear skills acquisition in otolaryngology residents using a simulator. The secondary objective was to determine if demographic factors or previous endoscopic experience influenced skill development.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, multicenter study. Resident participants each completed 10 amassed trials using a validated endoscopic ear skill trainer.

SETTING

Two academic teaching hospitals.

SUBJECTS

Otolaryngology residents.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Trial completion times; rate of improvement over time.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight residents completed the study, 26 from program A and 12 from program B. Fifteen participants were women and 23 were men. Mean age was 30 years old (range 26 to 34 years). Previous experience with otoendoscopy (B = -16.7, p = 0.005) and sinus endoscopy (B = -23.4, p = 0.001) independently correlated with lower overall trial times. Age, gender, postgraduate year, handedness, interest in otology, and video gaming were not associated with trial times. On multivariate logistic regression, resident completion times improved with trial number, and residents without previous endoscopy experience improved at a faster rate than those with experience ( p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Novice surgeons may acquire basic endoscopic ear experience with self-directed simulation training. The learning curve for transcanal endoscopic ear surgery is comparable to those demonstrated for other otologic surgeries, and specific task competencies can be achieved within 10 trials, suggesting that previous experiences, or lack thereof, may not dictate the ability to acquire new skills. There may be a translational value to previous endoscopic sinus experience on learning transcanal endoscopic ear surgery.

The user experience design of a novel microscope within SurgiSim, a virtual reality surgical simulator

PURPOSE

Virtual reality (VR) simulation has the potential to advance surgical education, procedural planning, and intraoperative guidance. "SurgiSim" is a VR platform developed for the rehearsal of complex procedures using patient-specific anatomy, high-fidelity stereoscopic graphics, and haptic feedback. SurgiSim is the first VR simulator to include a virtual operating room microscope. We describe the process of designing and refining the VR microscope user experience (UX) and user interaction (UI) to optimize surgical rehearsal and education.

METHODS

Human-centered VR design principles were applied in the design of the SurgiSim microscope to optimize the user's sense of presence. Throughout the UX's development, the team of developers met regularly with surgeons to gather end-user feedback. Supplemental testing was performed on four participants.

RESULTS

Through observation and participant feedback, we made iterative design upgrades to the SurgiSim platform. We identified the following key characteristics of the VR microscope UI: overall appearance, hand controller interface, and microscope movement.

CONCLUSION

Our design process identified challenges arising from the disparity between VR and physical environments that pertain to microscope education and deployment. These roadblocks were addressed using creative solutions. Future studies will investigate the efficacy of VR surgical microscope training on real-world microscope skills as assessed by validated performance metrics.

Thinking Beyond the Temporal Bone Lab: A Systematic Process for Expanding Surgical Simulation in Otolaryngology Training

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a temporary lapse in the development of otolaryngology trainee operative skills due to the cancellation of elective procedures and redeployment of trainees and attendings to COVID-19 units. Although transient, this disruption provided an opportunity for otolaryngology programs to develop contingency plans and formalize nascent simulation training curricula. Integration of formal simulation training alongside current didactic and surgical education may offset lost exposure during surgically lean times while providing the framework and resources for enhanced baseline training. Here, we provide an up-to-date overview of surgical simulation models in otolaryngology and identify easily implementable, low-cost, low fidelity models for junior trainees. By taking advantage of rapid advancements in technology and a paradigm shift to a more hands-on approach in medical education, formal simulation training may prove to be a beneficial tool at all stages of residency training, allowing for expanded peer-mentored skill development and providing a safe haven during unforeseen disruptions in surgical case volume.

Current Evidence for Simulation-Based Training and Assessment of Myringotomy and Ventilation Tube Insertion: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

Myringotomy and ventilation tube insertion (MT) is a key procedure in otorhinolaryngology and can be trained using simulation models. We aimed to systematically review the literature on models for simulation-based training and assessment of MT and supporting educational evidence.

DATABASES REVIEWED

PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Directory of Open Access Journals.

METHODS

Inclusion criteria were MT training and/or skills assessment using all types of training modalities and learners. Studies were divided into 1) descriptive and 2) educational interventional/observational in the analysis. For descriptive studies, we provide an overview of available models including materials and cost. Educational studies were appraised using Kirkpatrick's level of educational outcomes, Messick's framework of validity, and a structured quality assessment tool.

RESULTS

Forty-six studies were included consisting of 21 descriptive studies and 25 educational studies. Thirty-one unique physical and three virtual reality simulation models were identified. The studies report moderate to high realism of the different simulators and trainees and educators perceive them beneficial in training MT skills. Overall, simulation-based training is found to reduce procedure time and errors, and increase performance as measured using different assessment tools. None of the studies used a contemporary validity framework and the current educational evidence is limited.

CONCLUSION

Numerous simulation models and assessment tools have been described in the literature but educational evidence and systematic implementation into training curricula is scarce. There is especially a need to establish the effect of simulation-based training of MT in transfer to the operating room and on patient outcomes.

Comprehensive metrics for evaluating surgical microscope use during tympanostomy tube placement

PURPOSE

Learning to use a surgical microscope is a fundamental step in otolaryngology training; however, there is currently no objective method to teach or assess this skill. Tympanostomy tube placement is a common otologic procedure that requires skilled use of a surgical microscope. This study was designed to (1) implement metrics capable of evaluating microscope use and (2) establish construct validity.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a prospective cohort study.

METHODS

Eight otolaryngology trainees and three otolaryngology experts were asked to use a microscope to insert a tympanostomy tube into a cadaveric myringotomy in a standardized setting. Microscope movements were tracked in a three-dimensional space, and tracking metrics were applied to the data. The procedure was video-recorded and then analyzed by blinded experts using operational metrics. Results from both groups were compared, and discriminatory metrics were determined.

RESULTS

The following tracking metrics were identified as discriminatory between the trainee and expert groups: total completion time, operation time, still time, and jitter (movement perturbation). Many operational metrics were found to be discriminatory between the two groups, including several positioning metrics, optical metrics, and procedural metrics.

CONCLUSIONS

Performance metrics were implemented, and construct validity was established for a subset of the proposed metrics by discriminating between expert and novice participants. These discriminatory metrics could form the basis of an automated system for providing feedback to residents during training while using a myringotomy surgical simulator. Additionally, these metrics may be useful in guiding a standardized teaching and evaluation methodology for training in the use of surgical microscopes.

How I do it: a simulator of the ear for developing otomicroscopy skills during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic

OBJECTIVE

To develop a simulator of the external auditory canal and tympanic membrane that enables surgical trainees to practise their otomicroscopy skills, which is particularly valuable at a time where there is limited patient contact because of the coronavirus disease 2019 lockdown.

METHODS

A simulator of the external auditory canal and tympanic membrane was made using a cardboard bowl, a 2 ml syringe and a latex glove. The simulator was used to practise otomicroscopy skills, including microsuction, foreign body removal, myringotomy and grommet insertion. Five doctors in the ENT department participated, ranging from core surgical training year two doctor to specialty doctor.

RESULTS

The simulator provides an effective tool on which surgical trainees can practise, develop and maintain a variety of otomicroscopy skills.

CONCLUSION

This inexpensive, easy and quick-to-make simulator enables trainees to practise their otomicroscopy skills on an approximately accurate model during a time when there is minimal clinical opportunity to develop these skills, particularly because of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.

Low cost, easy-to-replicate myringotomy tube insertion simulation model

INTRODUCTION

Simulation is an established part of modern surgical education. Several training centers have proposed different simulation models for myringotomy tube (MT) placement and validated their effectiveness in medical student and resident training. None is widely used. Early models were simple tubes that lacked important microsurgical elements. Newer simulators are more comprehensive, but are difficult and expensive to build. We present a MT placement simulator that is low cost, easy to construct with basic power tools and allows for acquisition of the most necessary MT placement skills.

METHODS

The model incudes a rotating spherical "head", a 4 mm oval speculum, a drilled-out working shaft similar in size to the external auditory canal, and a realistic paper tympanic membrane target, set at an anatomically correct angle. To evaluate the model's efficacy, we assessed the performance of 10 surgically naïve medical student volunteers before training and after 30 min of instruction with the model. Their speed was recorded and operative performance was assessed using a validated Global Rating Scale.

RESULTS

After 30 min of practice on the model, there was significant improvement in MT placement skill scores and significant decrease in time for tube placement (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

This MT placement simulation model is inexpensive and easy to build. Unlike existing planar models, it simulates patient head orientation, and requires realistic hand positioning on a 4 mm speculum. Practice with the model for 30 min resulted in statistically significant improvement in MT placement skill scores for inexperienced student surgeons.

Creating a Validated Simulation Training Curriculum in Otolaryngology

Purpose of Review

Simulation-based training is an integral component of surgical training. It allows practice of technical skills within a safe environment without compromising patient safety. This article seeks to review current virtual and non-virtual reality simulation models within the literature and review their validation status.

Recent Findings

Many simulation models exist within otolaryngology and are currently being used for education. New models are also continuously being developed; however, validity should be proven for the models before incorporating their use for educational purposes. Validity should be determined by experts and trainees themselves.

Summary

A validated simulation curriculum should be incorporated within the otolaryngology training programme. A curriculum based on the current training programme at our institution serves as an exemplar for local adoption.

Otologic Skills Training

This article presents a summary of the current simulation training for otologic skills. There is a wide variety of educational approaches, assessment tools, and simulators in use, including simple low-cost task trainers to complex computer-based virtual reality systems. A systematic approach to otologic skills training using adult learning theory concepts, such as repeated and distributed practice, self-directed learning, and mastery learning, is necessary for these educational interventions to be effective. Future directions include development of measures of performance to assess efficacy of simulation training interventions and, for complex procedures, improvement in fidelity based on educational goals.

Current Status of Simulation in Otolaryngology: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

Otolaryngology is a highly technical and demanding specialty and the requirements for surgical trainees to acquire proficiency remains challenging. Simulation has been purported to be an effective tool in assisting with this. The aim of this systematic review is to identify the available otolaryngology simulators, their status of validation, and evaluation the level of evidence behind each training model and thereby establish a level of recommendation.

DESIGN

PubMed, ERIC, and Google Scholar databases were searched for articles that described otolaryngology simulators or training models between 1980 and April 2016. Any validation studies for simulators were also retrieved. Titles and abstracts were screened for relevance using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Level of evidence (LoE) and Level of recommendation (LoR) was awarded to each study and model, respectively.

RESULTS

A total of 70 studies were identified describing 64 simulators. Out of these, at least 54 simulators had 1 validation study. Simulators for the ear and temporal bone surgery were the most common (n = 32), followed by laryngeal and throat (n = 20) and endoscopic sinus surgery (n = 12). Face validity was evaluated by 29 studies, 20 attempted to show construct, 20 assessed content, 20 transfer, and only 2 assessed concurrent validity. Of the validation assessments, 2 were classified as Level 1b, 10 Level 2a, and 48 Level 2b. No simulators received the highest LoR, but 8 simulators received a LoR of 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the lack of evidence in outcome studies and limited number of high-validity otolaryngology simulators, the role of simulation continues to grow across surgical specialties Hence, it is imperative that the simulators are of high validity and construct for trainees to practice and rehearse surgical skills to develop confidence.

Ventilation tube insertion simulation: a literature review and validity assessment of five training models

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to identify and investigate the face and content validity of ventilation tube insertion (VTI) training models described in the literature.

DESIGN

A review of literature was carried out to identify articles describing VTI simulators. Feasible models were replicated and assessed by a group of experts.

SETTING

Postgraduate simulation centre.

PARTICIPANTS

Experts were defined as surgeons who had performed at least 100 VTI on patients. Seventeen experts were participated ensuring sufficient statistical power for analysis.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

A standardised 18-item Likert-scale questionnaire was used. This addressed face validity (realism), global and task-specific content (suitability of the model for teaching) and curriculum recommendation.

RESULTS

The search revealed eleven models, of which only five had associated validity data. Five models were found to be feasible to replicate. None of the tested models achieved face or global content validity. Only one model achieved task-specific validity, and hence, there was no agreement on curriculum recommendation.

CONCLUSIONS

The quality of simulation models is moderate and there is room for improvement. There is a need for new models to be developed or existing ones to be refined in order to construct a more realistic training platform for VTI simulation.

Face and content validity of a virtual-reality simulator for myringotomy with tube placement

BACKGROUND

Myringotomy with tube insertion can be challenging for junior Otolaryngology residents as it is one of the first microscopic procedures they encounter. The Western myringotomy simulator was developed to allow trainees to practice microscope positioning, myringotomy, and tube placement. This virtual-reality simulator is viewed in stereoscopic 3D, and a haptic device is used to manipulate the digital ear model and surgical tools.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the face and content validity of the Western myringotomy simulator.

METHODS

The myringotomy simulator was integrated with new modules to allow speculum placement, manipulation of an operative microscope, and insertion of the ventilation tube through a deformable tympanic membrane. A questionnaire was developed in consultation with instructing surgeons. Fourteen face validity questions focused on the anatomy of the ear, simulation of the operative microscope, appearance and movement of the surgical instruments, deformation and cutting of the eardrum, and myringotomy tube insertion. Six content validity questions focused on training potential on surgical tasks such as speculum placement, microscope positioning, tool navigation, ear anatomy, myringotomy creation and tube insertion. A total of 12 participants from the Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery were recruited for the study. Prior to completing the questionnaire, participants were oriented to the simulator and given unlimited time to practice until they were comfortable with all of its aspects.

RESULTS

Responses to 12 of the 14 questions on face validity were predominantly positive. One issue of concern was with contact modeling related to tube insertion into the eardrum, and the second was with the movement of the blade and forceps. The former could be resolved by using a higher resolution digital model for the eardrum to improve contact localization. The latter could be resolved by using a higher fidelity haptic device. With regard to content validity, 64% of the responses were positive, 21% were neutral, and 15% were negative.

CONCLUSIONS

The Western myringotomy simulator appears to have sufficient face and content validity. Further development with automated metrics and skills transference testing is planned.

Evaluation of a haptics-based virtual reality temporal bone simulator for anatomy and surgery training

INTRODUCTION

Virtual reality simulation training may improve knowledge of anatomy and surgical skills. We evaluated a 3-dimensional, haptic, virtual reality temporal bone simulator for dissection training.

METHODS

The subjects were 7 otolaryngology residents (3 training sessions each) and 7 medical students (1 training session each). The virtual reality temporal bone simulation station included a computer with software that was linked to a force-feedback hand stylus, and the system recorded performance and collisions with vital anatomic structures. Subjects performed virtual reality dissections and completed questionnaires after the training sessions.

RESULTS

Residents and students had favorable responses to most questions of the technology acceptance model (TAM) questionnaire. The average TAM scores were above neutral for residents and medical students in all domains, and the average TAM score for residents was significantly higher for the usefulness domain and lower for the playful domain than students. The average satisfaction questionnaire for residents showed that residents had greater overall satisfaction with cadaver temporal bone dissection training than training with the virtual reality simulator or plastic temporal bone. For medical students, the average comprehension score was significantly increased from before to after training for all anatomic structures. Medical students had significantly more collisions with the dura than residents. The residents had similar mean performance scores after the first and third training sessions for all dissection procedures.

DISCUSSION

The virtual reality temporal bone simulator provided satisfactory training for otolaryngology residents and medical students.

Estimation of the quasi-static Young's modulus of the eardrum using a pressurization technique

The quasi-static Young's modulus of the eardrum's pars tensa is an important modeling parameter in computer simulations. Recent developments in indentation testing and inverse modeling allow estimation of this parameter with the eardrum in situ. These approaches are challenging because of the curved shape of the pars tensa which requires special care during experimentation to keep the indenter perpendicular to the local surface at the point of contact. Moreover, they involve complicated contact modeling. An alternative computer-based method is presented here in which pressurization is used instead of indentation. The Young's modulus of a thin-shell model of the eardrum with subject-specific geometry is numerically optimized such that simulated pressurized shapes match measured counterparts. The technique was evaluated on six healthy rat eardrums, resulting in a Young's modulus estimate of 22.8±1.5MPa. This is comparable to values estimated using indentation testing. The new pressurization-based approach is simpler to use than the indentation-based method for the two reasons noted above.

A Systematic Review of Simulators in Otolaryngology

Objective

To conduct a systematic review of published articles that describe simulators that could be used in otolaryngology for education, skill acquisition, and/or skill improvement.

Data Sources

Ovid and Embase databases searched July 14, 2011.

Review Methods

Three hundred fifty-three abstracts were independently reviewed by both authors, then 154 eligible articles were reviewed by both authors, and 95 articles were categorized by organ system (eg, otologic); type of simulator (eg, physical, virtual); whether the simulator was a prototype, could be purchased, or was constructed; validation; and level of learning assessment. Discrepancies were resolved by re-review and discussion.

Results

In addition to 11 overview articles, 28 articles described 16 otology simulators, most of which are virtual and prototypes. Ninteen articles described 10 sinus/rhinology simulators; most are virtual surgery simulators and prototypes. Eight articles described 8 oral cavity simulators, and 8 articles described neck simulators. Seventeen articles described 13 bronchoscopy simulators; several are full-body high-technology manikins adapted from other purposes. Five articles described eclectic simulators, including some for learning nontechnical and teamwork skills. Half of the simulators have been validated. Learning levels were often not assessed or assessment was limited to the learners’ perceptions.

Conclusion

A wide variety of simulators are available or under development. Lack of unified validation concepts and limited descriptions restricted our ability to assess model characteristics, availability, and validation. Simulators are emerging as powerful tools to facilitate learning; this review may provide a platform for discussion and refinement of the information reported and analyzed in evaluating simulators.