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Palfi B, Parris BA, Collins AF, Dienes Z. Strategies that reduce Stroop interference. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:202136. [PMID: 35251674 PMCID: PMC8892271 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.202136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A remarkable example of reducing Stroop interference is provided by the word blindness post-hypnotic suggestion (a suggestion to see words as meaningless during the Stroop task). This suggestion has been repeatedly demonstrated to halve Stroop interference when it is given to highly hypnotizable people. In order to explore how highly hypnotizable individuals manage to reduce Stroop interference when they respond to the word blindness suggestion, we tested four candidate strategies in two experiments outside of the hypnotic context. A strategy of looking away from the target words and a strategy of visual blurring demonstrated compelling evidence for substantially reducing Stroop interference in both experiments. However, the pattern of results produced by these strategies did not match those of the word blindness suggestion. Crucially, neither looking away nor visual blurring managed to speed up incongruent responses, suggesting that neither of these strategies is the likely underlying mechanism of the word blindness suggestion. Although the current results did not unravel the mystery of the word blindness suggestion, they showed that there are multiple voluntary ways through which participants can dramatically reduce Stroop interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Palfi
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Pevensey Building 1, North South Road, Brighton, East Sussex BN1 9QH, UK
| | - B. A. Parris
- Department of Psychology, University of Bournemouth, Poole, UK
| | - A. F. Collins
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Z. Dienes
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Pevensey Building 1, North South Road, Brighton, East Sussex BN1 9QH, UK
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Collette E, Schelstraete MA. Accès aux représentations sémantiques en lecture et inhibition cognitive chez les étudiants dyslexiques : l’apport de la tâche Stroop sémantique. ANNEE PSYCHOLOGIQUE 2021. [DOI: 10.3917/anpsy1.213.0177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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Parris BA, Hasshim N, Dienes Z. Look into my eyes: Pupillometry reveals that a post-hypnotic suggestion for word blindness reduces Stroop interference by marshalling greater effortful control. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 53:2819-2834. [PMID: 33423342 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms underpinning the apparently remarkable levels of cognitive and behavioural control following hypnosis and hypnotic suggestion are poorly understood. Numerous independent studies have reported that Stroop interference can be reduced following a post-hypnotic suggestion that asks participants to perceive words as if made up of characters from a foreign language. This effect indicates that frontal executive functions can be more potent than is generally accepted and has been described as resulting from top-down control not normally voluntarily available. We employed eye tracking and pupillometry to investigate whether the effect results from voluntary visuo-attentional strategies (subtly looking away from the word to prevent optimal word processing), reduced response conflict but not overall conflict, Stroop effects being pushed from response selection to response execution (response durations) or increased proactive effortful control given enhanced contextual motivation (as indexed via pupil dilation). We replicated the reduction in Stroop interference following the suggestion despite removing any trials on which eye movements were not consistent with optimal word processing. Our data were inconclusive with regards to conflict type affected by the suggestion in the latency data, although preserved semantic conflict was evident in the pupil data. There was also no evidence of Stroop effects on response durations. However, we show that baseline-corrected pupil sizes were larger following the suggestion indicating the socio-cognitive context and experimental demands motivate participants to marshal greater effortful control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nabil Hasshim
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Zoltan Dienes
- Department of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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Palfi B, Parris BA, McLatchie N, Kekecs Z, Dienes Z. Can unconscious intentions be more effective than conscious intentions? Test of the role of metacognition in hypnotic response. Cortex 2020; 135:219-239. [PMID: 33387900 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
While several theories assume that responses to hypnotic suggestions can be implemented without executive intentions, the metacognitive class of theories postulate that the behaviors produced by hypnotic suggestions are intended and the accompanying feeling of involuntariness is only a consequence of strategically not being aware of the intention. Cold control theory asserts that the only difference between a hypnotic and non-hypnotic response is this metacognitive one, that is, whether or not one is aware of one's intention to perform the relevant act. To test the theory, we compared the performance of highly suggestible participants in reducing the Stroop interference effect in a post-hypnotic suggestion condition (word blindness: that words will appear as a meaningless foreign script) and in a volitional condition (asking the participants to imagine the words as a meaningless foreign script). We found that participants had equivalent expectations that the posthypnotic suggestion and the volitional request would help control the conflicting information. Further, participants felt they had more control over experiencing the words as meaningless with the request rather than the suggestion; and they experienced the request largely as imagination and the suggestion largely as perception. That is, we set up the interventions we required for the experiment to constitute a test of cold control theory. Both the suggestion and the request reduced Stroop interference. Crucially, there was Bayesian evidence that the reduction in Stroop interference was the same between the suggestion and the volitional request. That is, the results support the claim that responding hypnotically does not grant a person greater first order abilities than they have non-hypnotically, consistent with cold control theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Palfi
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK; Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.
| | - B A Parris
- Department of Psychology, University of Bournemouth, UK
| | - N McLatchie
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, UK
| | - Z Kekecs
- Department of Affective Psychology, ELTE, Budapest, UK; Department of Psychology, Lund University, Sweden
| | - Z Dienes
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK; Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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Ferrand L, Ducrot S, Chausse P, Maïonchi-Pino N, O'Connor RJ, Parris BA, Perret P, Riggs KJ, Augustinova M. Stroop interference is a composite phenomenon: Evidence from distinct developmental trajectories of its components. Dev Sci 2019; 23:e12899. [PMID: 31483912 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Only one previous developmental study of Stroop task performance (Schiller, 1966) has controlled for differences in processing speed that exist both within and between age groups. Therefore, the question of whether the early developmental change in the magnitude of Stroop interference actually persists after controlling for processing speed needs further investigation; work that is further motivated by the possibility that any remaining differences would be caused by process(es) other than processing speed. Analysis of data from two experiments revealed that, even after controlling for processing speed using z-transformed reaction times, early developmental change persists such that the magnitude of overall Stroop interference is larger in 3rd- and 5th graders as compared to 1st graders. This pattern indicates that the magnitude of overall Stroop interference peaks after 2 or 3 years of reading practice (Schadler & Thissen, 1981). Furthermore, this peak is shown to be due to distinct components of Stroop interference (resulting from specific conflicts) progressively falling into place. Experiment 2 revealed that the change in the magnitude of Stroop interference specifically results from joint contributions of task, semantic and response conflicts in 3rd- and 5th graders as compared to a sole contribution of task conflict in 1st graders. The specific developmental trajectories of different conflicts presented in the present work provide unique evidence for multiple loci of Stroop interference in the processing stream (respectively task, semantic and response conflict) as opposed to a single (i.e. response) locus predicted by historically - favored response competition accounts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovic Ferrand
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, LAPSCO, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | | | - Pierre Chausse
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, LAPSCO, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | | | | | | | | | - Kevin J Riggs
- Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull, UK
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Augustinova M, Parris BA, Ferrand L. The Loci of Stroop Interference and Facilitation Effects With Manual and Vocal Responses. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1786. [PMID: 31481908 PMCID: PMC6709679 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Several accounts of the Stroop task assume that the Stroop interference effect has several distinct loci (as opposed to a single response locus). The present study was designed to explore whether this is the case with both manual and vocal responses. To this end, we used an extended form of the Stroop paradigm (Augustinova et al., 2018b) that successfully distinguishes between the contribution of the task vs. semantic vs. response conflict to overall Stroop interference. In line with past findings, the results of Experiment 1 yielded an important response modality effect: the magnitude of Stroop interference was substantially larger when vocal responses were used (as opposed to key presses). Moreover, the present findings show that the response modality effect is specifically due to the fact that Stroop interference observed with vocal responses results from the significant contribution of task, semantic, and response conflicts, whereas only semantic and response conflicts clearly significantly contribute to Stroop interference observed with manual responses (no significant task conflict was observed). This exact pattern was replicated in Experiment 2. Also, and importantly, Experiment 2 also investigated whether and how the response modality effect affects Stroop facilitation. The results showed that the magnitude of Stroop facilitation was also larger when vocal as opposed to manual responses were used. This was due to the fact that semantic and response facilitation contributed to the overall Stroop facilitation observed with vocal responses, but surprisingly, only semantic facilitation contributed with manual responses (no response facilitation was observed). We discuss these results in terms of quantitative rather than qualitative differences in processing between vocal and manual Stroop tasks, within the framework of an integrative multistage account of Stroop interference (Augustinova et al., 2018b).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Augustinova
- UNIROUEN, CRFDP, Normandie Université, Rouen, France
- CNRS, LAPSCO, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Benjamin A. Parris
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, United Kingdom
| | - Ludovic Ferrand
- CNRS, LAPSCO, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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Parra A, Rey A. The interoception and imagination loop in hypnotic phenomena. Conscious Cogn 2019; 73:102765. [PMID: 31254737 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.102765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We tested a working hypothesis that the ideomotor and motor-control suggestions measured by current hypnotizability scales depend on the activation of an interoception-imagination processing loop. In three experiments, participants were exposed to an induction phase, Items 3 (mosquito hallucination) and 8 (arm immobilization) of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C, and a new version of Item 8 involving the additional activation of imaginative and interoception processes. We found that this modified version of Item 8 elicited greater responsiveness to suggestion, irrespective of its position in the sequence of hypnotic items. We argue that this interoception-imagination loop hypothesis provides a useful information processing analysis for understanding several hypnotic phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Parra
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, CNRS & Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
| | - Arnaud Rey
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, CNRS & Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France.
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Saletta M. Reading Disabilities in Adolescents and Adults. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2019; 49:787-797. [PMID: 30458540 DOI: 10.1044/2018_lshss-dyslc-18-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Reading skills continue to develop into adolescence and adulthood. Difficulties in reading have lifelong repercussions. Many speech-language pathologists who work with older individuals in the school setting face significant issues, including those mandated by recent changes in legislation. Theoretical topics related to reading development and disorders include the variety of orthographic systems across languages and the ways in which adults who are literate in an alphabetic orthographic system experience changes to their spoken and written language processing. In addition, older readers with intellectual or developmental disabilities may benefit from the use of leveled books and the inclusion of illustrations or drawings along with text. Method I completed a focused literature review regarding typical reading skills, dyslexia in adolescence and adulthood, recent changes in legislation, orthography, and the use of leveled books for adolescents and adults with intellectual or developmental disabilities. Conclusions Further study of reading in older individuals may lead to important theoretical and clinical applications. Speech-language pathologists should keep in mind the various components of reading (such as decoding and comprehension), how these factors relate to oral language, and how they may be addressed in therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith Saletta
- Wendell Johnson Speech & Hearing Center, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, The University of Iowa, Iowa City
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Augustinova M, Silvert L, Spatola N, Ferrand L. Further investigation of distinct components of Stroop interference and of their reduction by short response-stimulus intervals. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 189:54-62. [PMID: 28407872 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to extend the so-called semantic Stroop paradigm (Neely & Kahan, 2001) - which already successfully distinguishes between the contribution of the semantic vs. response conflict to Stroop interference - so that it can take account of and capture the separate contribution of task conflict. In line with this idea, the Stroop interference observed using the aforementioned paradigm with both short and long RSIs (500 vs. 2000ms) did indeed reflect the specific contribution of the task, semantic and response conflicts. However, the contribution of task conflict (as opposed to the semantic and response conflicts) failed to reach significance when the semantic Stroop paradigm was administered with manual (Experiment 1) as opposed to vocal responses (Experiment 2). These experiments further tested the extent to which the specific contribution of the different conflicts can be influenced by the increased cognitive control induced by a short (vs. long) RSI. The corresponding empirical evidence runs contrary to the assumption that the reduction of overall Stroop interference by a short (vs. long) RSI is due to the reduced contribution of the task (Parris, 2014) and/or semantic (De Jong, Berendsen, & Cools, 1999) conflicts. Indeed, in neither experiment was the contribution of these conflicts reduced by a short RSI. In both experiments, this manipulation only reduced the contribution of the response conflict to the overall Stroop interference (e.g., Augustinova & Ferrand, 2014b). Thus these different results clearly indicate that Stroop interference is a composite phenomenon involving both automatic and controlled processes. The somewhat obvious conclusion of this paper is that these processes are more successfully integrated within multi-stage accounts than within the historically favored single-stage response competition accounts that still dominate current psychological research and practice.
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Trial type mixing substantially reduces the response set effect in the Stroop task. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 189:43-53. [PMID: 28335990 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The response set effect refers to the finding that an irrelevant incongruent colour-word produces greater interference when it is one of the response options (referred to as a response set trial), compared to when it is not (a non-response set trial). Despite being a key effect for models of selective attention, the magnitude of the effect varies considerably across studies. We report two within-subjects experiments that tested the hypothesis that presentation format modulates the magnitude of the response set effect. Trial types (e.g. response set, non-response set, neutral) were either presented in separate blocks (pure) or in blocks containing trials from all conditions presented randomly (mixed). In the first experiment we show that the response set effect is substantially reduced in the mixed block context as a result of a decrease in RTs to response set trials. By demonstrating the modulation of the response set effect under conditions of trial type mixing we present evidence that is difficult for models of the effect based on strategic, top-down biasing of attention to explain. In a second experiment we tested a stimulus-driven account of the response set effect by manipulating the number of colour-words that make up the non-response set of distractors. The results show that the greater the number of non-response set colour concepts, the smaller the response set effect. Alternative accounts of the data and its implications for research debating the automaticity of reading are discussed.
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Abstract
Abstract. In the present manuscript, we investigate the source of congruency effects in a group of Dutch–French bilinguals. In particular, participants performed a color-identification Stroop task, in which both (first language) Dutch and (second language) French distracting color words were presented in colors. The typical finding is impaired responding when the word and color are incongruent (e.g., “red” in blue) relative to congruent (e.g., “red” in red). This congruency effect is observed for both first and second language distracting color words. The current experiment used a 2-to-1 keypress mapping manipulation, which allows one to separate stimulus conflict (i.e., conflict between word and color meanings) and response conflict (i.e., conflict between potential responses). For both the first and second language, both stimulus and response conflict were observed. These results suggest that second language words influence semantic and response processing similarly to first language words, rather than having diminished semantic and/or response influences.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R. Schmidt
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | | | - Jan De Houwer
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
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Arend I, Aisenberg D, Henik A. Social priming of hemispatial neglect affects spatial coding: Evidence from the Simon task. Conscious Cogn 2016; 45:1-8. [PMID: 27543899 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the Simon effect (SE), choice reactions are fast if the location of the stimulus and the response correspond when stimulus location is task-irrelevant; therefore, the SE reflects the automatic processing of space. Priming of social concepts was found to affect automatic processing in the Stroop effect. We investigated whether spatial coding measured by the SE can be affected by the observer's mental state. We used two social priming manipulations of impairments: one involving spatial processing - hemispatial neglect (HN) and another involving color perception - achromatopsia (ACHM). In two experiments the SE was reduced in the "neglected" visual field (VF) under the HN, but not under the ACHM manipulation. Our results show that spatial coding is sensitive to spatial representations that are not derived from task-relevant parameters, but from the observer's cognitive state. These findings dispute stimulus-response interference models grounded on the idea of the automaticity of spatial processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Arend
- Department of Psychology and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel.
| | - Daniela Aisenberg
- Department of Psychology and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Avishai Henik
- Department of Psychology and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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Behavioral and electrophysiological investigation of semantic and response conflict in the Stroop task. Psychon Bull Rev 2016; 22:543-9. [PMID: 25092389 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-014-0697-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
By combining the semantic Stroop paradigm (e.g., Klein in American Journal of Psychology 77:576-588, 1964) with a single-letter coloring (SLC) procedure (e.g., Besner et al. in Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 4:221-225, 1997), this research investigated whether the frequently reported Stroop-related event-related potential (ERP) effect arising about 400 ms after stimulus onset (Ninc) is sensitive to the semantic and/or the response conflict. Consistent with our past findings (e.g., Augustinova et al. in Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 17:827-833, 2010), SLC speeded up reaction times for standard-incongruent items only, indicating that SLC reduced the response conflict that these (but not color-associated and neutral) items involve. Ninc amplitudes were more negative for standard-incongruent and color-associated than for color-neutral items. Importantly, this difference was not modulated by SLC. Hence, the behavioral and ERP results conjointly suggest that the Stroop-related Ninc is sensitive to semantic rather than to response and/or general conflict.
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Augustinova M, Almeida E, Clarys D, Ferrand L, Izaute M, Jalenques I, Juneau C, Normand A, Silvert L. Que mesure l’interférence Stroop ? Quand et comment ? Arguments méthodologiques et théoriques en faveur d’un changement de pratiques dans sa mesure. ANNEE PSYCHOLOGIQUE 2016. [DOI: 10.3917/anpsy.161.0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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Que mesure l’interférence Stroop ? Quand et comment ? Arguments méthodologiques et théoriques en faveur d’un changement de pratiques dans sa mesure. ANNEE PSYCHOLOGIQUE 2015. [DOI: 10.4074/s000350331500024x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Aisenberg D, Cohen N, Pick H, Tressman I, Rappaport M, Shenberg T, Henik A. Social priming improves cognitive control in elderly adults--evidence from the Simon task. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117151. [PMID: 25635946 PMCID: PMC4311990 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined whether social priming of cognitive states affects the inhibitory process in elderly adults, as aging is related to deficits in inhibitory control. Forty-eight elderly adults and 45 young adults were assigned to three groups and performed a cognitive control task (Simon task), which was followed by 3 different manipulations of social priming (i.e., thinking about an 82 year-old person): 1) negative--characterized by poor cognitive abilities, 2) neutral--characterized by acts irrelevant to cognitive abilities, and 3) positive--excellent cognitive abilities. After the manipulation, the Simon task was performed again. Results showed improvement in cognitive control effects in seniors after the positive manipulation, indicated by a significant decrease in the magnitude of the Simon and interference effects, but not after the neutral and negative manipulations. Furthermore, a healthy pattern of sequential effect (Gratton) that was absent before the manipulation in all 3 groups appeared after the positive manipulation. Namely, the Simon effect was only present after congruent but not after incongruent trials for the positive manipulation group. No influence of manipulations was found in young adults. These meaningful results were replicated in a second experiment and suggest a decrease in conflict interference resulting from positive cognitive state priming. Our study provides evidence that an implicit social concept of a positive cognitive condition in old age can affect the control process of the elderly and improve cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Aisenberg
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Noga Cohen
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Hadas Pick
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Iris Tressman
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Michal Rappaport
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Tal Shenberg
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Avishai Henik
- Department of Psychology, and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
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Abstract
Various lines of research have independently reported that different interventions reduce or even eliminate Stroop interference. Because such findings have been interpreted as evidence that word reading can be prevented and/or controlled, these lines of research challenge the widespread automatic view of word reading. This article provides methodological and empirical arguments explaining why such conclusions might not be warranted and summarizes direct empirical evidence showing that interventions used in past studies have not yet been found to prevent or impose any control over word reading in the Stroop task. The main conclusion of this article is that the processes involved in word reading might (still) be considered automatic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Augustinova
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Ludovic Ferrand
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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Differential effects of viewing positions on standard versus semantic Stroop interference. Psychon Bull Rev 2013; 21:425-31. [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-013-0507-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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