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Pan Q, Chen S, Qu Y. Corporal punishment and violent behavior spectrum: a meta-analytic review. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1323784. [PMID: 38384354 PMCID: PMC10879622 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Corporal punishment is believed to precede various forms of violent behavior, yet prior research has yielded inconsistent findings, partly due to variations in violent types and other factors. This meta-analysis systematically reviewed 35 studies including 144 effect sizes (comprising a total sample size of 159,213) investigating the association between corporal punishment and a spectrum of violent behaviors called Violent Behavior Spectrum (VBS). Additionally, meta-regressions were conducted to explore the moderating impact of punishment severity, violence type and cultural context. Our findings indicated a significant positive relationship between corporal punishment and VBS (r = 0.238, 95%, CI [0.176, 0.300]). Notably, punishment severity was found to influence the strength of this association. Namely, The more severe the corporal punishment, the more likely it is to lead to VBS. These results enhance our understanding of the intricate connection between corporal punishment and various forms of violence, providing valuable insights for both parenting practices and policy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingna Pan
- School of Criminal Investigation in People’s Public Security University of China, Beijing, China
- Investigation Department, Hunan Police Academy, Changsha, China
| | - Siru Chen
- School of Business, Hunan Institute of Technology, Hengyang, China
| | - Ying Qu
- Department of Psychology at Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
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2
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Köster M, Hepach R. Preverbal infants' understanding of social norms. Sci Rep 2024; 14:2983. [PMID: 38316858 PMCID: PMC10844370 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53110-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Social norms are foundational to human cooperation and co-existence in social groups. A crucial marker of social norms is that a behavior is not only shared, but that the conformity to the behavior of others is a basis for social evaluation (i.e., reinforcement and sanctioning), taking the is, how individuals usually behave, to an ought, how individuals should behave to be socially approved by others. In this preregistered study, we show that 11-month-old infants grasp this fundamental aspect about social norms already in their first year. They showed a pupillary surprise response for unexpected social responses, namely the disapproval and exclusion of an individual who showed the same behavior like others or the approval and inclusion of an individual who behaved differently. That preverbal infants link the conformity with others' behavior to social evaluations, before they respond to norm violations themselves, indicates that the foundations of social norm understanding lie in early infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Köster
- Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Sedanstraße 1, 93055, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Robert Hepach
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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3
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Tan E, Hamlin JK. Toddlers' affective responses to sociomoral scenes: Insights from physiological measures. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 237:105757. [PMID: 37566958 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
A growing literature suggests that preverbal infants are sensitive to sociomoral scenes and prefer prosocial agents over antisocial agents. It remains unclear, however, whether and how emotional processes are implicated in infants' responses to prosocial/antisocial actions. Although a recent study found that infants and toddlers showed more positive facial expressions after viewing helping (vs. hindering) events, these findings were based on naïve coder ratings of facial activity; furthermore, effect sizes were small. The current studies examined 18- and 24-month-old toddlers' real-time reactivity to helping and hindering interactions using three physiological measures of emotion-related processes. At 18 months, activity in facial musculature involved in smiling/frowning was explored via facial electromyography (EMG). At 24 months, stress (sweat) was explored via electrodermal activity (EDA). At both ages, arousal was explored via pupillometry. Behaviorally, infants showed no preferences for the helper over the hinderer across age groups. EMG analyses revealed that 18-month-olds showed higher corrugator activity (more frowning) during hindering (vs. helping) actions, followed by lower corrugator activity (less frowning) after hindering (vs. helping) actions finished. These findings suggest that antisocial actions elicited negativity, perhaps followed by brief disengagement. EDA analyses revealed no significant event-related differences. Pupillometry analyses revealed that both 18- and 24-month-olds' pupils were smaller after viewing hindering (vs. helping), replicating recent evidence with 5-month-olds and suggesting that toddlers also show less arousal following hindering than following helping. Together, these results provide new evidence with respect to whether and how arousal/affective processes are involved when infants process sociomoral scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enda Tan
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
| | - J Kiley Hamlin
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Essler S, Christner N, Becher T, Paulus M. The ontogenetic emergence of normativity: How action imitation relates to infants' norm enforcement. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 227:105591. [PMID: 36434844 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Major developmental theories allot imitation a pivotal role in the cultural acquisition of social norms. Although there exists considerable evidence of young children's norm enforcement behavior, the ontogenetic emergence of normativity and the role of imitation is debated. Here, we assessed two pathways of how general imitation tendencies might relate to norm enforcement: The compliance path holds that young children's general imitation tendencies lead to displaying compliant behavior, which in turn predicts norm enforcement toward third parties. The internalization path suggests that young children's general imitation tendencies lead to an internal representation of normative rules. As children observe third parties' normative transgressions, a perceived discrepancy between internalized representation of the rule and observed behavior arises, which in turn triggers corrective action, that is, norm enforcement behavior. We assessed 18-month-olds' (N = 97) general imitation tendencies across four tasks, their compliance with maternal directives across two tasks, and their self-distress as well as protest behavior following normative transgressions. Results showed that (a) whereas imitation significantly predicted compliance behavior, compliance did not predict norm enforcement behavior, and that (b) imitation predicted self-distress, which in turn predicted norm enforcement. These findings speak to internalization as one psychological basis of norm enforcement behavior and highlight the importance of imitation in the ontogenetic emergence of normativity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Essler
- Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, 80802 Munich, Germany; FOM University of Applied Sciences, 45127 Essen, Germany.
| | | | - Tamara Becher
- Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Markus Paulus
- Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, 80802 Munich, Germany
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Geraci A, Surian L. Preverbal infants' reactions to third-party punishments and rewards delivered toward fair and unfair agents. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 226:105574. [PMID: 36332434 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Rewarding individuals who distribute resources fairly and punishing those who distribute resources unfairly may be very important actions for fostering cooperation. This study investigated whether 9-month-olds have some expectations concerning punishments and rewards that follow distributive actions. Infants were shown simple animations and were tested using the violation-of-expectation paradigm. In Experiment 1, we found that infants looked longer when they saw a bystander delivering a corporal punishment to a 'fair distributor,' who distributed some windfall resources equally to the possible recipients, rather than to an 'unfair distributor,' who distributed the resources unequally. This pattern of looking times was reversed when, in Experiment 2, punishments were replaced with rewards. These findings suggest an early emergence of expectations about punishing and rewarding actions in third-party contexts, and they help to evaluate competing claims about the origins of a sense of fairness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Geraci
- Department of Social and Educational Sciences of the Mediterranean Area, University for Foreigners of Reggio Calabria, 89125 Reggio Calabria RC, Italy.
| | - Luca Surian
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, 38122 Trento TN, Italy
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6
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Socially evaluative contexts facilitate mentalizing. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:17-29. [PMID: 36357300 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Our ability to understand others' minds stands at the foundation of human learning, communication, cooperation, and social life more broadly. Although humans' ability to mentalize has been well-studied throughout the cognitive sciences, little attention has been paid to whether and how mentalizing differs across contexts. Classic developmental studies have examined mentalizing within minimally social contexts, in which a single agent seeks a neutral inanimate object. Such object-directed acts may be common, but they are typically consequential only to the object-seeking agent themselves. Here, we review a host of indirect evidence suggesting that contexts providing the opportunity to evaluate prospective social partners may facilitate mentalizing across development. Our article calls on cognitive scientists to study mentalizing in contexts where it counts.
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Geraci A. Some considerations for the developmental origin of the principle of fairness. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Geraci
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science University of Trento Rovereto Italy
- Department of Social and Educational Sciences of the Mediterranean Area University for Foreigners “Dante Alighieri” of Reggio Calabria Reggio Calabria Italy
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Gonzalez‐Gadea ML, Dominguez A, Petroni A. Decisions and mechanisms of intergroup bias in children's third‐party punishment. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- María Luz Gonzalez‐Gadea
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center Universidad de San Andres Buenos Aires Argentina
- National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) Argentina
| | | | - Agustin Petroni
- National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) Argentina
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Computación (ICC), CONICET‐Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Argentina
- Instituto de Ingeniería Biomédica Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Argentina
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Geraci A, Simion F, Surian L. Infants' intention-based evaluations of distributive actions. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 220:105429. [PMID: 35421629 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent research revealed that infants attend to agents' intentions when they evaluate helping actions. The current study investigated whether infants also consider agents' intentions when they evaluate distributive actions. In Experiment 1, 9-month-old infants were first shown two failed attempts to perform a distribution. In the "failed equal distribution," the distributor first tried to reach one of the recipients to deliver an apple, failed, and then attempted to reach the other possible recipient to deliver a different apple and also failed. In the "failed unequal distribution," a different distributor always tried unsuccessfully to reach the same beneficiary. Then, in the test phase, infants were presented with the two distributors side by side, and infants' spontaneous preferential looking and reaching actions were recorded. We found a reliable preference for the equal distributor in both the visual and manual responses. Experiments 2 and 3 helped to rule out alternative explanations based on perceptual cues and affiliative biases. Overall, these findings suggest that infants' ability to evaluate distributive actions relies not only on the outcomes but also on the distributors' intentions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Geraci
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy.
| | - Francesca Simion
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialisation, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Surian
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
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Stowe LM, Peretz-Lange R, Blake PR. Children Consider Procedures, Outcomes, and Emotions When Judging the Fairness of Inequality. Front Psychol 2022; 13:815901. [PMID: 35310214 PMCID: PMC8927918 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.815901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Children tend to view equal resource distributions as more fair than unequal ones, but will sometimes view even unequal distributions as fair. However, less is known about how children form judgments about inequality when different procedures are used. In the present study, we investigated children's consideration of procedures (i.e., resource-distributing processes), outcomes (i.e., the distributions themselves), and emotions (i.e., the emotional reactions of those receiving the resources) when judging the fairness of unequal resource distributions. Participants (N = 130, 3- to 8-year-olds) were introduced to a Fair Coin (different color on each side) and an Unfair Coin (same color on both sides). In two between-subjects conditions, they watched a researcher flip either the Fair or Unfair Coin in order to distribute resources unequally between two child recipients. Participants then rated the fairness of this event, provided verbal justifications for their ratings (coded for references to procedures and/or outcomes), and rated the emotional state of each recipient (from which an Emotion Difference Score was computed). Results revealed that participants rated the event as more fair in the Fair Coin than the Unfair Coin condition. References to the outcome in children's justifications predicted lower fairness ratings, while references to the procedure only predicted lower ratings in the Unfair Coin condition. Greater Emotion Difference Scores predicted lower fairness ratings, and this effect increased with age. Together, these results show that children consider procedures, outcomes, and emotions when judging the fairness of inequality. Moreover, results suggest age-related increases in consideration of recipients' emotions makes inequality seem less fair, even when fair procedures are used. Implications for the development of fairness are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy M. Stowe
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Rebecca Peretz-Lange
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Purchase, NY, United States
| | - Peter R. Blake
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
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Abstract
How do humans intuitively understand the structure of their society? How should psychologists study people's commonsense understanding of societal structure? The present chapter seeks to address both of these questions by describing the domain of "intuitive sociology." Drawing primarily from empirical research focused on how young children represent and reason about social groups, we propose that intuitive sociology consists of three core phenomena: social types (the identification of relevant groups and their attributes); social value (the worth of different groups); and social norms (shared expectations for how groups ought to be). After articulating each component of intuitive sociology, we end the chapter by considering both the emergence of intuitive sociology in infancy as well as transitions from intuitive to reflective representations of sociology later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Shutts
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.
| | - Charles W Kalish
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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