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Pinet S, Martin CD. Cross-modal interactions in language production: evidence from word learning. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02552-x. [PMID: 39120808 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02552-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Literate adults are able to produce the same word in different language modalities-for instance, through speaking and writing. Yet how speaking and writing interact is not well understood. The present study takes a new perspective on the question of the co-activation of phonological and orthographic representations in speaking and writing by examining the acquisition of novel words. We tested how novel words get integrated into modality-specific lexicons by biasing novel word acquisition toward speaking or writing and assessing cross-modal transfer at the first stages of learning. Participants learned novel words paired with pictures of novel objects and practiced them overtly through speaking or typing. At test, typed training led to higher recall accuracy than spoken training whether words were recalled through typing or speaking. Performance in typing (RT and durations) benefited more from typed than spoken training. Crucially, performance in speaking did not benefit specifically from spoken training and was similar after spoken or typed training. Results are compatible with an asymmetric integration in the phonological and orthographic lexicons according to the modality of training, with representations created in the orthographic lexicon directly transferring to the phonological lexicon, while the opposite doesn't seem to occur. Cross-modal transfer dynamics are discussed according to the level of lexical activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Pinet
- Basque Center On Cognition, Brain and Language, Paseo Mikeletegi 69, 20009, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.
| | - Clara D Martin
- Basque Center On Cognition, Brain and Language, Paseo Mikeletegi 69, 20009, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
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Bartha-Doering L, Roberts D, Baumgartner B, Yildirim MS, Giordano V, Spagna A, Pal-Handl K, Javorszky SM, Kasprian G, Seidl R. Developmental surface dyslexia and dysgraphia in a child with corpus callosum agenesis: an approach to diagnosis and treatment. Cogn Neuropsychol 2024:1-23. [PMID: 38942485 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2024.2368876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
We present a case study detailing cognitive performance, functional neuroimaging, and effects of a hypothesis-driven treatment in a 10-year-old girl diagnosed with complete, isolated corpus callosum agenesis. Despite having average overall intellectual abilities, the girl exhibited profound surface dyslexia and dysgraphia. Spelling treatment significantly and persistently improved her spelling of trained irregular words, and this improvement generalized to reading accuracy and speed of trained words. Diffusion weighted imaging revealed strengthened intrahemispheric white matter connectivity of the left temporal cortex after treatment and identified interhemispheric connectivity between the occipital lobes, likely facilitated by a pathway crossing the midline via the posterior commissure. This case underlines the corpus callosum's critical role in lexical reading and writing. It demonstrates that spelling treatment may enhance interhemispheric connectivity in corpus callosum agenesis through alternative pathways, boosting the development of a more efficient functional organization of the visual word form area within the left temporo-occipital cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Bartha-Doering
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel Roberts
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Population Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Bettina Baumgartner
- Department of Logopedics, Phoniatrics, and Audiology, University of Applied Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mehmet Salih Yildirim
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-guided Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Vito Giordano
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alfredo Spagna
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Katharina Pal-Handl
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Susanne Maria Javorszky
- Department of Logopedics, Phoniatrics, and Audiology, University of Applied Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gregor Kasprian
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-guided Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rainer Seidl
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Zhang Y, Huang J, Huang L, Peng L, Wang X, Zhang Q, Zeng Y, Yang J, Li Z, Sun X, Liang S. Atypical characteristic changes of surface morphology and structural covariance network in developmental dyslexia. Neurol Sci 2024; 45:2261-2270. [PMID: 37996775 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-023-07193-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by difficulties with all aspects of information acquisition in the written word, including slow and inaccurate word recognition. The neural basis behind DD has not been fully elucidated. METHOD The study included 22 typically developing (TD) children, 16 children with isolated spelling disorder (SpD), and 20 children with DD. The cortical thickness, folding index, and mean curvature of Broca's area, including the triangular part of the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFGtriang) and the opercular part of the left inferior frontal gyrus, were assessed to explore the differences of surface morphology among the TD, SpD, and DD groups. Furthermore, the structural covariance network (SCN) of the triangular part of the left inferior frontal gyrus was analyzed to explore the changes of structural connectivity in the SpD and DD groups. RESULTS The DD group showed higher curvature and cortical folding of the left IFGtriang than the TD group and SpD group. In addition, compared with the TD group and the SpD group, the structural connectivity between the left IFGtriang and the left middle-frontal gyrus and the right mid-orbital frontal gyrus was increased in the DD group, and the structural connectivity between the left IFGtriang and the right precuneus and anterior cingulate was decreased in the DD group. CONCLUSION DD had atypical structural connectivity in brain regions related to visual attention, memory and which might impact the information input and integration needed for reading and spelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusi Zhang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- Rehabilitation Industry Institute, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Cognitive Rehabilitation, Affiliated Rehabilitation Hospital of Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350001, Fujian, China
| | - Jiayang Huang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Li Huang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Lixin Peng
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Xiuxiu Wang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Qingqing Zhang
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Yi Zeng
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Junchao Yang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
- College of Rehabilitation Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Zuanfang Li
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China
| | - Xi Sun
- College of Information Engineering, Nanyang Institute of Technology, Nanyang, 473004, China
| | - Shengxiang Liang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Rehabilitation Medicine Technology, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China.
- Rehabilitation Industry Institute, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350122, China.
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Cognitive Rehabilitation, Affiliated Rehabilitation Hospital of Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, 350001, Fujian, China.
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Chaussoy L, Lambert E, Quémart P. Morphological processing in written word production is based on orthography rather than semantics. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 229:103670. [PMID: 35849920 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Written word production is influenced by central and peripheral processes. Evidence suggests that the activation of morphological units in the lexicon influences the dynamics of handwriting. In this study, we designed two priming experiments to examine the representation level of morphological information in the lexicon during written word production in the French language. In both experiments, target words (e.g., chanteur, "singer") were primed by a derived (e.g., chanter, "to sing"), a pseudo-derived (e.g., chantier, "work site"), or an unrelated (e.g., baleine, "whale") prime. We used the pseudo-derivation condition to disentangle two distinct levels of representation: the sublexical (also known as morpho-orthographic) and the supralexical (morpho-semantic). In Experiment 1 (learning-recall task), we measured the writing latency and writing duration of the target words. In Experiment 2 (word pair copying task), we measured the inter-word duration and writing duration of the target words. We observed morphological priming effects in both experiments: The processing of a derived prime influenced target writing compared to an unrelated prime, but the effect was observed on latencies in Experiment 1 and on target writing duration in Experiment 2. We found similar patterns of priming in the derived and pseudo-derived conditions in both experiments. The findings revealed that morphemes are processed at the morpho-orthographic representation level in written word production. Morphemes serve as grouping units during handwriting, a process that operates independently of their meaning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Chaussoy
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage (CeRCA)-UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Poitiers, France.
| | - Eric Lambert
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage (CeRCA)-UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Poitiers, France.
| | - Pauline Quémart
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage (CeRCA)-UMR CNRS 7295, University of Poitiers and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Poitiers, France; Nantes Université, Univ Angers, Laboratoire de psychologie des Pays de la Loire, LPPL, UR 4638, F-44000 Nantes, France.
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Xiong J, Zhang Y, Ju P. The Effects of Orthographic Neighborhood Size and the Influence of Individual Differences in Linguistic Skills During the Recognition of Chinese Words. Front Psychol 2021; 12:727894. [PMID: 34858267 PMCID: PMC8631189 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.727894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There are still inconsistencies as to whether frequency and orthographic neighborhood size affect the reading and recognition of Chinese words. In addition, research on Chinese reading still adheres to the view that "all skilled readers read in the same way" and pays little attention to the influence of individual differences in linguistic skills on word recognition. In this research, we studied the recognition of Chinese two-character words in a lexical decision task (LDT) by manipulating neighborhood size and word frequency and controlling the frequency of the initial constituent character. Individual differences in linguistic skills were assessed through tests of spelling and reading comprehension. The results showed that: (1) A larger orthographic neighborhood size of the initial character had a facilitative effect on Chinese word recognition. The orthographic neighborhood size effect is modulated by word frequency, but this modulation effect was not stable. (2) Spelling and reading comprehension skills are good indicators to assess individual differences in Chinese linguistic skills, and they are significantly correlated. (3) Individual differences in linguistic skills influence the neighborhood size effect, which is moderated by word frequency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Xiong
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Yujie Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Ping Ju
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
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Dębska A, Banfi C, Chyl K, Dzięgiel-Fivet G, Kacprzak A, Łuniewska M, Plewko J, Grabowska A, Landerl K, Jednoróg K. Neural patterns of word processing differ in children with dyslexia and isolated spelling deficit. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 226:1467-1478. [PMID: 33761000 PMCID: PMC8096730 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02255-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate concerning the extent to which deficits in reading and spelling share cognitive components and whether they rely, in a similar fashion, on sublexical and lexical pathways of word processing. The present study investigates whether the neural substrates of word processing differ in children with various patterns of reading and spelling deficits. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we compared written and auditory processing in three groups of 9-13-year olds (N = 104): (1) with age-adequate reading and spelling skills; (2) with reading and spelling deficits (i.e., dyslexia); (3) with isolated spelling deficits but without reading deficits. In visual word processing, both deficit groups showed hypoactivations in the posterior superior temporal cortex compared to typical readers and spellers. Only children with dyslexia exhibited hypoactivations in the ventral occipito-temporal cortex compared to the two groups of typical readers. This is the result of an atypical pattern of higher activity in the occipito-temporal cortex for non-linguistic visual stimuli than for words, indicating lower selectivity. The print-speech convergence was reduced in the two deficit groups. Impairments in lexico-orthographic regions in a reading-based task were associated primarily with reading deficits, whereas alterations in the sublexical word processing route could be considered common for both reading and spelling deficits. These findings highlight the partly distinct alterations of the language network related to reading and spelling deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Dębska
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Chiara Banfi
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Katarzyna Chyl
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Gabriela Dzięgiel-Fivet
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Kacprzak
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- Faculty of Psychology, Warsaw University, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Łuniewska
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Plewko
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Grabowska
- Faculty of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Karin Landerl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Katarzyna Jednoróg
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Eskenazi MA, Kemp P, Folk JR. Word skipping during the lexical acquisition process. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 74:548-558. [PMID: 33135575 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820967292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
During reading, most words are identified in the fovea through a direct fixation; however, readers also identify some words in the parafovea without directly fixating them. This word skipping process is influenced by many lexical and visual factors including word length, launch position, frequency, and predictability. Although these factors are well understood, there is some disagreement about the process that leads to word skipping and the degree to which skipped words are processed. The purpose of this study was to investigate the word skipping process when readers are exposed to novel words in an incidental lexical acquisition paradigm. Participants read 18 three-letter novel words (i.e., pru, cho) in three different informative contexts each while their eye movements were monitored. They then completed a surprise test of their orthographic and semantic acquisition and a spelling skill assessment. Mixed-effects models indicated that participants learned spellings and meanings of words at the same rate regardless of the number of times that they were skipped. However, word skipping rates increased across the three exposures and reading times decreased. Results indicate that readers appear to process skipped words to the same degree as fixated words. However, this may be due to a more cautious skipping process used during lexical acquisition of unfamiliar words compared to processing of already known words.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paige Kemp
- Department of Psychology, Stetson University, DeLand, FL, USA
| | - Jocelyn R Folk
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
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Houlis K, Hogben JH, Visser T, Ohan JL, Anderson M, Heath SM. “Zooming in” on orthographic knowledge to clarify the relationship between rapid automatised naming (RAN) and word reading. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Yates M, Slattery TJ. Individual differences in spelling ability influence phonological processing during visual word recognition. Cognition 2019; 187:139-149. [PMID: 30875660 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In the research reported here, we investigated how phonological processing in the lexical decision task is influenced by individual differences in the reading and spelling abilities of participants. We used phonological neighborhood spread as a measure of phonological processing. Spread refers to the number of phoneme positions in a word that can be changed to form a phonological neighbor. Replicating previous research, we found that words forming neighbors across three positions (P3) were recognized more rapidly than those forming neighbors across only two positions (P2). Importantly, we found that this spread effect interacted with spelling ability. The difference between P3 and P2 was largest when spelling recognition was high and spelling production low. These opposing effects of spelling ability are explained in terms of a language system that consists of separate orthographic systems for reading and spelling. Although these two orthographic systems are separate, they share information through a shared response buffer (Jones & Rawson, 2016). Within this framework, it is argued that lexical decisions are made once the information in the response buffer reaches threshold and that time to reach this threshold is influenced by two sources. One is the quality of the orthographic connections in the reading system and is measured by spelling recognition. The other is the quality of the orthographic connections in the spelling system and is measured by spelling production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Yates
- University of South Alabama, United States.
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Gangl M, Moll K, Banfi C, Huber S, Schulte-Körne G, Landerl K. Reading strategies of good and poor readers of German with different spelling abilities. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 174:150-169. [PMID: 29957357 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Reading and spelling abilities are thought to be highly correlated during development, and orthographic knowledge is assumed to underpin both literacy skills. Interestingly, recent studies showed that reading and spelling skills can also dissociate. The current study investigated whether spelling skills (indicating orthographic knowledge) are associated with the application of orthographic strategies during reading. We examined eye movements of 137 third- and fourth-graders who were either good or poor readers with or without a spelling deficit: 43 children with typical reading and spelling skills, 28 with isolated spelling deficits, 28 with isolated reading deficits, and 38 with combined reading and spelling deficits. Although we expected to find reduced reliance on orthographic reading processes among poor spellers, this was evident for the group with combined deficits only. Both isolated deficit groups applied sublexical and lexical processes in a similar amount to typically developing children. Our findings suggest that reading rests on orthographic strategies even if lexical representations are poor as indicated by a deficit in spelling skills. Findings also show that dysfluent reading does not result only from overreliance on decoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Gangl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Kristina Moll
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Chiara Banfi
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Stefan Huber
- Knowledge Media Research Center, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gerd Schulte-Körne
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, LMU Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Karin Landerl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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Abstract
Developmental deficits in the acquisition of writing skills (developmental dysgraphias) are common and have significant consequences, yet these deficits have received relatively little attention from researchers. We offer a framework for studying developmental dysgraphias (including both spelling and handwriting deficits), arguing that research should be grounded in theories describing normal cognitive writing mechanisms and the acquisition of these mechanisms. We survey the current state of knowledge concerning developmental dysgraphia, discussing potential proximal and distal causes. One conclusion emerging from this discussion is that developmental writing deficits are diverse in their manifestations and causes. We suggest an agenda for research on developmental dysgraphia, and suggest that pursuing this agenda may contribute not only to a better understanding of developmental writing impairment, but also to a better understanding of normal writing mechanisms and their acquisition. Finally, we provide a brief introduction to the subsequent articles in this special issue on developmental dysgraphia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael McCloskey
- a Cognitive Science Department , Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Brenda Rapp
- a Cognitive Science Department , Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
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