Development and evaluation of orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) containing Ibuprofen granules prepared by hot melt extrusion

Effects of nano zinc oxide and nano chitosan on the taste masking paracetamol granules

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to investigate the taste masking of Paracetamol granules in the range of 250-850 µm, coated by two nanocomposites prepared from Eudragit® E100, nanozinc oxide, and nanochitosan, respectively, from 1 to 5% by the weight of the granules.

METHODS

In this study, Paracetamol granules were coated in several formulas with two different types of nanocomposites (polymeric and mineral) on two sizes of granules to reduce bitter taste and with the FBC method and pH-sensitive polymers (Eudragit® E100).

RESULTS

The effect of nanoparticles (Nano zinc oxide and Nanochitosan) on taste-masking Paracetamol was studied with dissolution-coated granules in vitro by simulating in the oral (pH 6.8) range. Based on the results of the studies, the rate of drug release was confirmed by the taste test, and the formulated granule with 5% nano-chitosan (F14) had the best bitter taste mask function of all samples. These results were also confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, which showed a smoother and more stable surface than the samples obtained from other formulations.

CONCLUSION

In the comparison of the release of two types of nanocomposites in the dissolution test, it was shown that the type B granules of Paracetamol's 5% nano-chitosan-coated granule (F14) were released 99% less than Paracetamol's 5% nano-ZnO-coated granule (F11). and Paracetamol's 1% nano-chitosan-coated granule (F12) was released 91% less than Paracetamol's 1% nano-ZnO-coated granule (F9). The results showed that nano-chitosan-coated granules have better coverage of bitter taste instead of nano-ZnO.

Development of Losartan Orally Disintegrating Tablets by Direct Compression: a Cost-Effective Approach to Improve Paediatric Patient's Compliance

The development of suitable dosage forms is essential for an effective pharmacological treatment in children. Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) are attractive dosage forms that avoid swallowing problems, ensure dosage accuracy and are easy to administer as they disintegrate in the oral cavity. This study aimed to develop ODTs containing losartan potassium (LP) for the treatment of arterial hypertension in children. The ODTs, produced by the cost-effective manufacturing process of direct compression, consisted of a mixture of diluent, superdisintegrant, glidant and lubricant. Five superdisintegrants (croscarmellose sodium, two grades of crospovidone, sodium starch glycolate and pregelatinized starch) were tested (at two concentrations), and combined with three diluents (mannitol, lactose and sorbitol). Thus, thirty formulations were evaluated based on disintegration time, hardness and friability. Two formulations, exhibiting the best results concerning disintegration time (< 30 s), hardness and friability (≤ 1.0%), were selected as the most promising ones for further evaluation. These ODTs presented favourable drug-excipient compatibility, tabletability and flow properties. The in vitro dissolution studies demonstrated 'very rapid' drug release. Preliminary stability studies highlighted the requirement of a protective packaging. All quality properties retained appropriate results after 12 months of storage in airtight containers. In conclusion, the ODTs were successfully developed and characterised, suggesting a potential means to accomplish a final prototype that enables an improvement in childhood arterial hypertension treatment.

Semi-crystalline materials for pharmaceutical fused filament fabrication: Dissolution and porosity

A better understanding of crystallization kinetics and the effect on drug product quality characteristics is needed to exploit the use of semi-crystalline polymers in pharmaceutical fused filament fabrication. Filaments were prepared from polycaprolactone or polyethylene oxide loaded with a crystallization inhibitor or inducer, which was either 10% (w/w) ibuprofen or theophylline. A design-of-experiments approach was conducted to investigate the effect of nozzle temperature, bed temperature and print speed on the printed tablets' microstructure and dissolution kinetics. Helium pycnometry derived porosity proved an ideal technique to capture significant distortions in the tablets' microstructure. On the other hand, terahertz time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) analysis proved valuable to investigate additional enclosed pores of the tablets' microstructure. The surface roughness was analyzed using optical coherence tomography, showing the importance of extensional viscosity for printed drug products. Drug release occurred via erosion for tablets consisting of polyethylene oxide, which partly reduced the effect of the inner microstructure on the drug release kinetics. An initial burst release effect was noted for polycaprolactone tablets, after which drug release continued via diffusion. Both the pore and crystalline microstructure were deemed essential to steer drug release. In conclusion, this research provided guidelines for material and process choice when a specific microstructure has to be constructed from semi-crystalline materials. In addition, non-destructive tests for the characterization of printed products were evaluated.

3D Printing of Personalised Carvedilol Tablets Using Selective Laser Sintering

Selective laser sintering (SLS) has drawn attention for the fabrication of three-dimensional oral dosage forms due to the plurality of drug formulations that can be processed. The aim of this work was to employ SLS with a CO2 laser for the manufacturing of carvedilol personalised dosage forms of various strengths. Carvedilol (CVD) and vinylpyrrolidone-vinyl acetate copolymer (Kollidon VA64) blends of various ratios were sintered to produce CVD tablets of 3.125, 6.25, and 12.5 mg. The tuning of the SLS processing laser intensity parameter improved printability and impacted the tablet hardness, friability, CVD dissolution rate, and the total amount of drug released. Physicochemical characterization showed the presence of CVD in the amorphous state. X-ray micro-CT analysis demonstrated that the applied CO2 intensity affected the total tablet porosity, which was reduced with increased laser intensity. The study demonstrated that SLS is a suitable technology for the development of personalised medicines that meet the required specifications and patient needs.

In vivo evaluation of nanostructured lipid carrier systems (NLCs) in mice bearing prostate cancer tumours

Nanostructure lipid carriers (NLCs) were developed for the delivery of curmumin (CRN), a potent anticancer agent with low bioavailability, for the treatment of prostate cancer. NLCs prepared using high pressure homogenization (HPH) with around 150 nm particle size, - 40 V ζ-potential and excellent long-term stability. Cellular uptake of CRN-SLN showed nanoparticle localization in the cytoplasm around the nucleus. CRN-NLCs were assessed using flow cytometry and found to cause early and late apoptotic events at 100 μg/ml CRN concentrations. CRN-NLC nanoparticles were administrated to nude mice with LNCaP prostate cancer xenografts and demonstrated substantial tumour volume suppression (40%) with no weight loss compared to pure CRN (ethanolic solution). Overall, NLCs were proved a suitable carrier for passive drug delivery and cancer treatment.

Texture analysis – a versatile tool for pharmaceutical evaluation of solid oral dosage forms

In the past few decades, texture analysis (TA) has gained importance as a valuable method for the characterization of solid oral dosage forms. As a result, an increasing number of scientific publications describe the textural methods that evaluate the extremely diverse category of solid pharmaceutical products. Within the current work, the use of texture analysis in the characterization of solid oral dosage forms is summarised with a focus on the evaluation of intermediate and finished oral pharmaceutical products. Several texture methods are reviewed regarding the applications in mechanical characterization, and mucoadhesion testing, but also in estimating the disintegration time and in vivo specific features of oral dosage forms. As there are no pharmacopoeial standards for pharmaceutical products tested through texture analysis, and there are important differences between reported results due to different experimental conditions, the choice of testing protocol and parameters is challenging. Thereby, this work aims to guide the research scientists and quality assurance professionals involved in different stages of drug development into the selection of optimal texture methodologies depending on the product characteristics and quality control needs.

Advances in formulation and manufacturing strategies for the delivery of therapeutic proteins and peptides in orally disintegrating dosage forms

Therapeutic proteins and peptides (TPPs) are increasingly favoured above small drug molecules due to their high specificity to the site of action and reduced adverse effects resulting in increased use of these agents for medical treatments and therapies. Consequently, there is a need to formulate TPPs in dosage forms that are accessible and suitable for a wide range of patient groups as the use of TPPs becomes increasingly prevalent in healthcare settings worldwide. Orally disintegrating dosage forms (ODDF) are formulations that can ensure easy-to-administer medication to a wider patient population including paediatrics, geriatrics and people in low-resource countries. There are many challenges involved in developing suitable pharmaceutical strategies to protect TPPs during formulation and manufacturing, as well as storage, and maintenance of a cold-chain during transportation. This review will discuss advances being made in the research and development of pharmaceutical and manufacturing strategies used to incorporate various TPPs into ODDF systems.

An Overview of Taste-Masking Technologies: Approaches, Application, and Assessment Methods

It is well-known that plenty of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) inherently possess an unpleasant taste, which influences the acceptance of patients, especially children. Therefore, manufacturing taste-masked dosage forms has attracted a lot of attention. This review describes in detail the taste-masking technologies based on the difference in the taste transmission mechanism which is currently available. In particular, the review highlights the application of various methods, with a special focus on how to screen the appropriate masking technology according to the properties of API. Subsequently, we overviewed how to assess taste-masking efficacy, guiding researchers to rationally design taste-masking formulations.

Composition-Property Relationships of pH-Responsive Poly[(2-vinylpyridine)-co-(butyl methacrylate)] Copolymers for Reverse Enteric Coatings

The taste-masking of bitter-tasting active pharmaceutical ingredients is key to ensuring patient compliance when producing oral pharmaceutical formulations. This is generally achieved via the incorporation of pH-responsive, reverse enteric polymers, that prevent the dissolution of the formulation in the oral environment, but rapidly mediate it within the gastric environment. Reverse enteric polymers are commonly applied as coatings on oral dosage forms via spray atomisation (e.g., fluidised-bed spray coating), and generally exhibit the most efficient taste-masking. However, currently used reverse enteric coatings require high mass gains (% w/w) during coating to mediate taste-masking, and thereby exhibit delayed release within the gastric environment. Therefore, there remains a need for the development of new reverse enteric coatings, that can efficiently taste-mask at low mass gains and maintain rapid release characteristics within the gastric environment. Herein we report the synthesis and evaluation of a series of addition copolymers of 2-vinylpyridine and butyl methacrylate, methyl methacrylate and isobornyl methacrylate. The thermal, solubility, and water absorption properties of the copolymers were effectively tuned by altering the mol% fraction of the constitutive monomers. Based on their physical properties, selected copolymers were preliminarily evaluated for their compatibility with fluidised-bed spray coating, and effectiveness as taste-masking reverse enteric coatings. The copolymers poly[(2-vinylpyridine)-co-(butyl methacrylate)] (mol% ratio 40:60) and poly[(2-vinylpyridine)-co-(butyl methacrylate)-co-(methyl methacrylate)] (mol% ratio 40:50:10) were found to exhibit excellent taste-masking properties following fluidised-bed spray coating onto Suglets^® sugar spheres. Suglets^® bearing a film coating of either copolymer (5.2-6.5% w/w mass gain) were found to effectively impede the release of a model drug formulation for up to 72 h in a simulated salivary environment, and rapidly release it (<10 min) within a simulated gastric environment. The results demonstrated the potential of poly[(2-vinylpyridine)-co-(butyl methacrylate)] copolymers to form effectively taste-masked, reverse enteric dosage forms, and suggested that these copolymers may provide improved performance compared to currently available polymers.

Pharmacological Effects and Clinical Prospects of Cepharanthine

Cepharanthine is an active ingredient separated and extracted from Stephania cepharantha Hayata, a Menispermaceae plant. As a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid, cepharanthine has various pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antitumoral, and antiviral effects. Following the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), cepharanthine has been found to have excellent anti-COVID-19 activity. In this review, the important physicochemical properties and pharmacological effects of cepharanthine, particularly the antiviral effect, are systematically described. Additionally, the molecular mechanisms and novel dosage formulations for the efficient, safe, and convenient delivery of cepharanthine are summarized.

Hot-Melt Extrusion of the Thermo-Sensitive Peptidomimetic Drug Enalapril Maleate

The aim of this research was the production of extrudates for the treatment of hypertension and heart failure and the investigation of the degradation of the peptidomimetic drug enalapril maleate (EM) during hot-melt extrusion (HME). A fast HPLC method was developed to quantify enalapril maleate and possible degradation products. Screening experiments revealed that the diketopiperazine derivative (Impurity D) was the main degradation product. Hot-melt extrusion of enalapril maleate with the polymer Soluplus^® enabled extrusion at 100 °C, whereas a formulation with the polymer Eudragit^® E PO could be extruded at only 70 °C. Extrusion at 70 °C prevented thermal degradation. A stabilizing molecular interaction between enalapril maleate and Eudragit^® E PO was identified via FT-IR spectroscopy. Dissolution studies were carried out to study the influence of the formulation on the dissolution behavior of enalapril maleate. These promising results can be transferred to other thermo-sensitive and peptidomimetic drugs to produce extrudates which can be used, for instance, as feedstock material for the production of patient-specific dosage forms via Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing.

Personalised Paediatric Chewable Ibuprofen Tablets Fabricated Using 3D Micro-extrusion Printing Technology

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is becoming an attractive technology for the design and development of personalized paediatric dosage forms with improved palatability. In this work micro-extrusion based printing was implemented for the fabrication of chewable paediatric ibuprofen (IBU) tablets by assessing a range of front runner polymers in taste masking. Due to the drug-polymer miscibility and the IBU plasticization effect, micro-extrusion was proved to be an ideal technology for processing the drug/polymer powder blends for the printing of paediatric dosage forms. The printed tablets presented high printing quality with reproducible layer thickness and a smooth surface. Due to the drug-polymer interactions induced during printing processing, IBU was found to form a glass solution confirmed by differential calorimetry (DSC) while H-bonding interactions were identified by confocal Raman mapping. IBU was also found to be uniformly distributed within the polymer matrices at molecular level. The tablet palatability was assessed by panellists and revealed excellent taste masking of the IBU's bitter taste. Overall micro-extrusion demonstrated promising processing capabilities of powder blends for rapid printing and development of personalised dosage forms.

Recent advances in wearable medical diagnostic sensors and new therapeutic dosage forms for fever in children

Fever in children is one of the most common symptoms of pediatric diseases and the most common complaint in pediatric clinics, especially in the emergency department. Diseases such as pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis are leading causes of death in children, and the early manifestations of these diseases are accompanied by fever symptoms. Accurate diagnosis and real-time monitoring of the status of febrile children, rapid and effective identification of the cause, and treatment can have a positive impact on relieving their symptoms and improving their quality of life. In recent years, wearable diagnostic sensors have attracted special attention for their high flexibility, real-time monitoring, and sensitivity. Temperature sensors and heart rate sensors have provided new advances in detecting children's body temperature and heart rate. Furthermore, some novel formulations have also received wide attention for addressing bottlenecks in medication administration for febrile children, such as difficulty in swallowing and inaccurate dosing. In this context, the present review provides recent advances of novel wearable medical sensor devices for diagnosing fever. Moreover, the application progress of innovative dosage forms of classical antipyretic drugs for children is presented. Finally, challenges and prospects of wearable sensor-based diagnostics and novel agent-based treatment of fever in children are discussed in brief.

3D printing of bioactive materials for drug delivery applications

INTRODUCTION

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), is a modern technique/technology, which makes it possible to construct 3D objects from computer-aided design (CAD) digital models. This technology can be used in the progress of drug delivery systems, where porosity has played important role in attaining an acceptable level of biocompatibility and biodegradability with improved therapeutic effects. 3D printing may also provide the user possibility to control the dosage of each ingredient in order to a specific purpose, and makes it probable to improve the formulation of drug delivery systems.

AREAS COVERED

This article covers the 3D printing technologies, bioactive materials including natural and synthetic polymers as well as some ceramics and minerals and their roles in drug delivery systems.

EXPERT OPINION

This technology is feasible to fabricate drug products by incorporating multiple drugs in different parts in such a mode that these drugs can release from the section at a predetermined rate. Furthermore, this 3D printing technology has the possible to transform personalized therapy to various age-groups by design flexibility and precise dosing. In recent years, the potential use of this technology can be realized in a clinical situation where patients will acquire individualized medicine as per their require.

Strategies for Taste Masking of Orodispersible Dosage Forms: Time, Concentration, and Perception

Orodispersible dosage forms, characterized as quick dissolving and swallowing without water, have recently gained great attention from the pharmaceutical industry, as these forms can satisfy the needs of children, the elderly, and patients suffering from mental illnesses. However, poor taste by thorough exposure of the drugs' dissolution in the oral cavity hinders the effectiveness of the orodispersible dosage forms. To bridge this gap, we put forward three taste-masking strategies with respect to the intensity of time, concentration, and perception. We further investigated the raw material processing, the composition of auxiliary material, formulation techniques, and process control in each strategy and drew conclusions about their effects on taste masking.

A systematic and robust assessment of hot-melt extrusion-based amorphous solid dispersions: Theoretical prediction to practical implementation

Amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) have gained attention as a formulation strategy in recent years, with the potential to improve the apparent solubility and, hence, the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. The process of formulating ASDs is commonly faced with challenges owing to the intrinsic physical and chemical instability of the initial amorphous form and the long-term physical stability of drug formulations. Numerous research publications on hot-melt extrusion (HME) technology have demonstrated that it is the most efficient approach for manufacturing reasonably stable ASDs. The HME technique has been established as a faster scale-up production strategy for formulation evaluation and has the potential to minimize the time to market. Thermodynamic evaluation and theoretical predictions of drug-polymer solubility and miscibility may assist to reduce the product development cost by HME. This review article highlights robust and established prediction theories and experimental approaches for the selection of polymeric carriers for the development of hot melt extrusion based stable amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs). In addition, this review makes a significant contribution to the literature as a pilot guide for ASD assessment, as well as to confirm the drug-polymer compatibility and physical stability of HME-based formulations.

Ibuprofen loaded centrifugally spun microfibers for quick relief of inflammation in rats

The conventional dosage forms (tablets, capsules), of ibuprofen has less potential in suppression of pain and inflammation due to their slow dissolution rates and lower bioavailability. Aim of this study was to fabricate fibrous solid dispersion of ibuprofen for improved dissolution rate and quick therapeutic action. Drug loaded microfibers were fabricated using centrifugal melt spinning (CMS) technique from the physical mixture of sucrose, ibuprofen and a hydrophilic polymer, PVP. These fibers were characterized by SEM, PXRD, DSC, and FTIR spectroscopy. The selected formulation was also pressed into tablets by direct compression method followed by its in-vitro and in-vivo characterization. The production yield of fibers was 75 ± 2% with an average diameter 15 ± 5 µm. The drug loading efficiency (DLE) was 85 ± 5%. The tablets dissolved rapidly (<40s). In-vitro dissolution studies have shown >85% of ibuprofen dissolved from tablet within first 2 min which was ∼5 times quicker than drug alone. Dissolution efficiency has improved from 0.63 of ibuprofen to 0.95 of that in fibers with ∼7 times reduction in mean dissolution time. PXRD, andDSC have shown amorphous state of ibuprofen in the formulation and FTIR spectra demonstrated no interaction of drug with excipients . In-vivo anti-inflammatory studies using rabbits revealed a significant (p <0.05) reduction in paw volume (mm) in the groups treated with fibrous formulation. This study concludes that microfibers produced by centrifugal melt spinning has improved dissolution rates and bioavailability of ibuprofen. Incorporation of polymer in the formulations improves the production yield and drug loading efficiency of microfibers.

Formulation and Quality Control of Orally Disintegrating Tablets (ODTs): Recent Advances and Perspectives

Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) rapidly disintegrate or dissolve in the oral cavity without using water. Demand for ODTs has increased, and the field has overgrown in the pharmaceutical industry and academia. It is reported that ODTs have several advantages over other conventional tablets. Since some of them are absorbed from the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus as the saliva passes down into the stomach, in such cases, the bioavailability of the drug improves meaningfully. Furthermore, the immediate release property of ODTs makes them a popular oral dosage form in patients with swallowing challenges, children, and for cases with a need for rapid onset of action. The current review article explains the features of active ingredients and excipients used in the formulation of ODTs, discusses multiple ODT formulation and preparation techniques with their merits and demerits, and also, offers remedies for problems associated with ODTs. Moreover, quality control steps and required considerations are presented.

Preparation and In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation of Orally Disintegrating/Modified-Release Praziquantel Tablets

This study was designed to develop orally disintegrating/sustained-release praziquantel (PZQ) tablets using the hot-melt extrusion (HME) technique and direct compression, and subsequently evaluate their release in in vitro and in vivo pharmacokinetics. For the extrusion process, hypromellose acetate succinate (HPMCAS)-LG was the carrier of pure PZQ, with a standard screw configuration used at an extrusion temperature of 140 °C and a screw rotation speed of 100 rpm. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were performed to characterize the extrudate. Orally disintegrating/sustained-release praziquantel tablets (PZQ ODSRTs) were prepared by direct compression after appropriate excipients were blended with the extrudate. The release amount was 5.10% in pH 1.0 hydrochloric acid at 2 h and over 90% in phosphoric acid buffer at 45 min, indicating the enteric-coating character of PZQ ODSRTs. Compared with the pharmacokinetics of marketed PZQ tablets (Aipuruike^®) in dogs, the times to peak (T_max), elimination half-life (t_1/2λ) and mean residence time (MRT) were extended in PZQ ODSRTs, and the relative bioavailability of PZQ ODSRTs was up to 184.48% of that of Aipuruike^®. This study suggested that PZQ ODSRTs may have potential for the clinical treatment of parasitosis.

Preparation, evaluation, and pharmacokinetics in beagle dogs of a taste-masked flunixin meglumine orally disintegrating tablet prepared using hot-melt extrusion technology and D-optimal mixture design

Flunixin meglumine (FM) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug limited by irritation of the respiratory tract and mucosa in veterinary tissue. This study aimed to develop a taste-masked FM solid dispersion (SD) by hot-melt extrusion (HME) and formulate an orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) with selected excipients by direct compression. Eudragit® E PO was chosen as the matrix, and HME parameters were optimized: extrusion temperature, 135℃; screw speed, 100 rpm; and drug loading, 20%. Characterization techniques proved that FM was rendered amorphous in the HME extrudate. In vitro dissolution studies showed that FM SD released significantly slower than the corresponding physical mixture in artificial saliva. Excipients were selected based on compression formability, disintegration, and solubility. A D-optimal mixture design was used to optimize the composition: 25% FM SD, 18.75% microcrystalline cellulose, 52.5% mannitol, 3.75% low-substituted hydroxypropyl cellulose, and 1% magnesium stearate. Taste-masked FM ODT had a tensile strength of 0.7 ± 0.01 MPa and a disintegration time of 17.6 ± 0.1 s. E-tongue and E-nose analysis showed that FM ODT had a better taste-masked effect than commercial granules. Finally, a pharmacokinetic study proved that the main pharmacokinetic parameters of FM ODT were not significantly different from those of commercial granules, which indicated that these formulations had similar pharmacokinetic behaviours in beagles.

Eudragit®: A Versatile Family of Polymers for Hot Melt Extrusion and 3D Printing Processes in Pharmaceutics

Eudragit® polymers are polymethacrylates highly used in pharmaceutics for the development of modified drug delivery systems. They are widely known due to their versatility with regards to chemical composition, solubility, and swelling properties. Moreover, Eudragit polymers are thermoplastic, and their use has been boosted in some production processes, such as hot melt extrusion (HME) and fused deposition modelling 3D printing, among other 3D printing techniques. Therefore, this review covers the studies using Eudragit polymers in the development of drug delivery systems produced by HME and 3D printing techniques over the last 10 years. Eudragit E has been the most used among them, mostly to formulate immediate release systems or as a taste-masker agent. On the other hand, Eudragit RS and Eudragit L100-55 have mainly been used to produce controlled and delayed release systems, respectively. The use of Eudragit polymers in these processes has frequently been devoted to producing solid dispersions and/or to prepare filaments to be 3D printed in different dosage forms. In this review, we highlight the countless possibilities offered by Eudragit polymers in HME and 3D printing, whether alone or in blends, discussing their prominence in the development of innovative modified drug release systems.

Personalised Tasted Masked Chewable 3D Printed Fruit-Chews for Paediatric Patients

The development of personalised paediatric dosage forms using 3D printing technologies has gained significant interest over the last few years. In the current study extruded filaments of the highly bitter Diphenhydramine Hydrochloride (DPH) were fabricated by using suitable hydrophilic carries such as hydroxypropyl cellulose (Klucel ELF^TM) and a non-ionic surfactant (Gelucire 48/16^TM) combined with sweetener (Sucralose) and strawberry flavour grades. The thermoplastic filaments were used to print 3D fruit-chew designs by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) technology. Physicochemical characterisation confirmed the formation of glass solution where DPH was molecularly dispersed within the hydrophilic carriers. DPH was released rapidly from the 3D printed fruit-chew designs with >85% within the first 30 min. Trained panellists performed a full taste and sensory evaluation of the sweetener intensity and the strawberry aroma. The evaluation showed complete taste masking of the bitter DPH and revealed a synergistic effect of the sweetener and the strawberry flavour with enhanced sweet strawberry, fruity and aftertaste perception. The findings of the study can be used for the development of paediatric dosage forms with enhanced organoleptic properties, palatability and medication adherence.

Continuous Melt Granulation for Taste-Masking of Ibuprofen

Taste-masking of drugs, particularly to produce formulations for pediatric patients, can be challenging and require complex manufacturing approaches. The objective of this study was to produce taste-masked ibuprofen granules using a novel process, twin-screw melt granulation (TSMG). TSMG is an emerging, high-productivity, continuous process. Granules of ibuprofen embedded in a lipid matrix were produced across a range of process conditions, resulting in a range of output granule particle sizes. The ibuprofen appeared to be miscible with the lipid binder though it recrystallized after processing. The ibuprofen melt granules were tested in simulated saliva using a novel, small-volume dissolution technique with continuous acquisition of the ibuprofen concentration. The ibuprofen release from the granules was slower than the neat API and physical blend, beyond the expected residence time of the granules in the mouth. The ibuprofen release was inversely related to the granule size. A Noyes–Whitney dissolution model was used and the resulting dissolution rate constants correlated well with the granule size.

Roughly Spherical: Tailored PMMA-SiO2 Composite Supraparticles with Optimized Powder Flowability for Additive Manufacturing

Particulate materials with well-engineered properties are of key importance for many aspects in our daily life. Polymer powders with high flowability, for example, play a crucial role in the emerging field of powder-based additive manufacturing processes. However, the polymer- and composite material selection for these technologies is still limited. Here, we demonstrate the design of spherical polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and PMMA-SiO₂ composite supraparticle powders with excellent powder flowability and tailored composition for powder-based additive manufacturing. Our process assembles these powders from the bottom up and affords a precise control over surface roughness and internal morphology via the choice of colloidal primary particles. We establish process-structure-property relationships connecting external spray-drying parameters and primary particle sizes with the resulting supraparticle roughness and, subsequently, with the macroscopic powder flowability and powder bed density. In a second step, we demonstrate the control of composition and internal morphology of PMMA-SiO₂ composite supraparticles based on different mass mixings and diameter ratios of the two primary particle dispersions. Finally, we successfully apply the prepared supraparticle powders in powder bed additive manufacturing. The optimized flowability of the composite powders allows the production of two-layered square specimens with fusion between the individual layers and a uniform and tunable distribution of nanoscale SiO₂ additives without requiring the addition of any flowing aids.

Twin-Screw Melt Granulation for Oral Solid Pharmaceutical Products

This article highlights the advantages of pharmaceutical continuous melt granulation by twin-screw extrusion. The different melt granulation process options and excipients are described and compared, and a case is made for expanded use of twin-screw melt granulation since it is a flexible and continuous process. Methods for binder selection are profiled with a focus on rheology and physical stability impacts. For twin-screw melt granulation, the mechanism of granulation and process impact on granule properties are described. Pharmaceutical applications of melt granulation ranging from immediate release of soluble and insoluble APIs, taste-masking, and sustained release formulation are reviewed, demonstrating the range of possibilities afforded by twin-screw melt granulation.

Development and Evaluation of Cocoa Butter Taste Masked Ibuprofen Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

Masking the unpleasant taste of the pharmaceutically active ingredients plays a critical role in patient acceptance, particularly for children. This work's primary objective was the preparation of taste-masked ibuprofen microparticles using cocoa butter with the assistance of supercritical fluid technology. Microparticles were prepared by dissolving ibuprofen in melted cocoa butter at 40 °C. The solution was then introduced into a supercritical fluid unit and processed at 10 MPa CO₂ pressure for 30 min. The product was collected after depressurizing the system. The effect of the drug to cocoa butter ratio and the supercritical fluid units' configuration on product quality was evaluated and compared with the sample prepared by a conventional method. Physicochemical characterization of the prepared product, including particle size, crystallinity, entrapment efficiency, in vitro drug release, and product taste using a human volunteer panel was conducted. The produced microparticles were in the range of 1.42 to 15.28 μm. The entrapment efficiency of the formulated microparticles ranged from 66 to 81%. The drug:polymer ratio, the configuration of the supercritical fluid unit, and the method of preparation were found to have a critical role in the formulation of ibuprofen microparticles. Taste evaluation using human volunteers showed that microparticles containing 20% drug and processed with supercritical fluid technology were capable of masking the bitter taste of ibuprofen. In conclusion, the dispersion of ibuprofen in cocoa butter using supercritical fluid technology is a a promising innovative method to mask the bitter taste of ibuprofen.

Excipients in the Paediatric Population: A Review

This theoretical study seeks to critically review the use of excipients in the paediatric population. This study is based on the rules and recommendations of European and American drug regulatory agencies. On the one hand, this review describes the most frequent excipients used in paediatric medicine formulations, identifying the compounds that scientific literature has marked as potentially harmful regarding the side effects generated after exposure. On the other hand, this review also highlights the importance of carrying out safety -checks on the excipients, which, in most cases, are linked to toxicity studies. An excipient in the compilation of paediatric population databases is expected to target safety and toxicity, as in the STEP database. Finally, a promising pharmaceutical form for child population, ODT (Orally Disintegrating Tablets), will be studied.

A review of in vitro and in vivo methods and their correlations to assess mouthfeel of solid oral dosage forms

This review analyses the relationship between instrumental and human data used to assess the mouthfeel of solid oral dosage forms to provide recommendations on the most appropriate methods to use in future studies.

Prediction of the physical stability of amorphous solid dispersions: relationship of aging and phase separation with the thermodynamic and kinetic models along with characterization techniques

Introduction: Solid dispersion has been considered to be one of the most promising methods for improving the solubility and bioavailability of insoluble drugs. However, the physical stability of solid dispersions (SDs), including its aging and recrystallization, or phase separation, has always been one of the most challenging problems in the process of formulation development and storage.Areas covered: The high energy state of SDs is one of the primary reasons for the poor physical stability. The factors affecting the physical stability of SDs have been described from the perspective of thermodynamics and kinetics, and the corresponding theoretical model is put forward. We briefly summarize several commonly used techniques to characterize the thermodynamic and kinetic properties of SDs. Specific measures to improve the physical stability of SDs have been proposed from the perspective of prescription screening, process parameters, and storage conditions.Expert opinion: The separation of the drug from the polymer, the formation, and migration of drug crystals will cause the SDs to shift toward the direction of energy reduction, which is the intrinsic cause of instability. Furthermore, computational simulation can be used for efficient and rapid screening suitable for the excipients to improve the physical stability of SDs.

Hot Melt Extrusion and its Application in 3D Printing of Pharmaceuticals

Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) is a continuous pharmaceutical manufacturing process that has been extensively investigated for solubility improvement and taste masking of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Recently, it is being explored for its application in 3D printing. 3D printing of pharmaceuticals allows flexibility of dosage form design, customization of dosage form for personalized therapy and the possibility of complex designs with the inclusion of multiple actives in a single unit dosage form. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a 3D printing technique with a variety of applications in pharmaceutical dosage form development. FDM process requires a polymer filament as the starting material that can be obtained by hot melt extrusion. Recent reports suggest enormous applications of a combination of hot melt extrusion and FDM technology in 3D printing of pharmaceuticals and need to be investigated further. This review in detail describes the HME process, along with its application in 3D printing. The review also summarizes the published reports on the application of HME coupled with 3D printing technology in drug delivery.

Theophylline-nicotinamide pharmaceutical co-crystals generated using hot melt extrusion technology: Impact of polymeric carriers on processability

The objective of the current study was to develop theophylline (TPH) nicotinamide (NAM) pharmaceutical co-crystals using the hot melt extrusion (HME) technology and evaluate the processability of the co-crystals using different polymeric carriers. A physical mixture of 1:1 M ratio of TPH and NAM was employed to prepare the co-crystals. Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate, polyethylene oxide, and Kollidon® VA-64 (5% w/w) were investigated as polymeric carriers for the HME process. Solid-state characterization using differential scanning calorimetry showed two endothermal peaks, one at 126.4 °C indicating eutectic formation and another at 174 °C indicating the melting point of the co-crystal for all formulations, except the Kollidon® VA-64 extrudates, which showed a single peak at 174 °C. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and powder X-ray diffraction studies revealed the formation of co-crystals. The feasibility to formulate the extrudates into solid dosage forms was assessed by formulating a tablet blend. The three-month stability studies showed no degradation at the accelerated stability conditions of 40 (±2) ° C and 75 (±5) % RH. Finally, the results demonstrated that the presence of mixing zones in screw configuration and extrusion temperature are critical processing parameters that influence co-crystal formation.

Tribochemistry as an Alternative Synthesis Pathway

While reactions driven by mechanical force or stress can be labeled mechanochemical, those specifically occurring at a sliding interface inherit the name tribochemical, which stems from the study of friction and wear: tribology. Increased perception of tribochemical reactions has been gained through technological advancement, and the development of new applications remains on-going. This surprising physico-kinetic process offers great potential in novel reaction pathways for synthesis techniques and nanoparticle interactions, and it could prove to be a powerful cross-disciplinary research area among chemists, engineers, and physicists. In this review article, a survey of the history and recent usage of tribochemical reaction pathways is presented, with a focus on forging new compounds and materials with this sustainable synthesis methodology. In addition, an overview of tribochemistry’s current utility as a synthesis pathway is given and compared to that of traditional mechanochemistry.

Factors affecting performance and manufacturability of naproxen Liqui-Pellet

Aim

Liqui-Pellet is potentially an emerging next-generation oral pill, which has shown promising results with unique advantages as well as displaying potential for commercial feasibility. Since Liqui-Pellet technology is still in its infancy, it is important to explore the parameters that can affect its performance, particularly the drug release rate. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate thoroughly the effect of Avicel PH101 (carrier) and Aerosil 300 (coating material) ratio (R-value) in Liqui-Pellet.

Methods

Key parameter for Liqui-Pellet formulation in this study was the ratio of carrier and coating material. Tests were carried out to assess the physicochemical properties of different formulations. This involved looking into particle size, robustness, flowability, solid-state and drug release profile. The morphology of Liqui-Pellet was investigated by SEM.

Results

It is found that R-value does not have a major effect on the success of Liqui-Pellet production. However, R-value does seem to have an effect on Liqui-Pellet size at a certain water content level and a slight effect on the drug release rate. A decrease in Avicel PH101 concentration and an increase in Aerosil 300 concentration in Liqui-Pellet formulations can reduce Liqui-Pellet size and slightly increase drug release rate by 9% after 2 h. The data shows Liqui-Pellet is resistant to friability, able to achieve exceptional flow property and have smooth surfaces, which is critical for applying coatings technology. Such properties are ideal in terms of commercial manufacturing. The XRPD and DSC both show the reduction in formulation crystallinity, which is expected in Liqui-Pellet formulation as a result of solubility of the drug in the co-solvent used in the preparation of Liqui-Pellets.

Conclusion

Overall it seems that R-value can affect Liqui-Pellet drug release rate and size but not on the production success rate.

Graphical abstract

Raft-forming gastro-retentive formulations based on Centella asiatica extract-solid dispersions for gastric ulcer treatment

Liquid raft-forming formulations comprising solid dispersions of glycoside-rich Centella asiatica extract and Eudragit® EPO (GR-SD) were developed to achieve prolonged delivery of the glycosides, asiaticoside (AS) and madecassoside (MS) in the stomach and thus increase the effectiveness of gastric ulcer treatment. Solid dispersions of GR extract and Eudragit® EPO (GR-SD, weight ratio 1:0.5) resulted in the highest solubility of AS (41.7 mg/mL) and MS (29.3 mg/mL) and completed dissolution of both glycosides occurred in SGF within 10 min. The optimized raft-forming formulation was composed of alginate (2%), HPMC K-100 (0.5%), GR-SD (1.2%), and calcium carbonate (0.5%) as a calcium source and carbon dioxide producer. The formulation provided sufficient raft strength (> 7.0 g), rapid floating behavior in SGF (~30 s), and sustained release of AS (more than 80%) and MS (85%) over 8 h. GR-SD-based formulations administered once daily to rats for two days at a dose of 10 mg AS/kg reduced the severity of gastric ulcer induced by indomethacin with a greater curative efficacy than those of unformulated GR extract and a standard antiulcer agent: lansoprazole (p < 0.05). These findings demonstrate that GR-SD-based raft-forming systems offer significant promise for improving the treatment of gastric ulcers induced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Continuous Formulation Approaches of Amorphous Solid Dispersions: Significance of Powder Flow Properties and Feeding Performance

Preparation and formulation of amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) are becoming more and more popular in the pharmaceutical field because the dissolution of poorly water-soluble drugs can be effectively improved this way, which can lead to increased bioavailability in many cases. During downstream processing of ASDs, technologists need to keep in mind both traditional challenges and the newest trends. In the last decade, the pharmaceutical industry began to display considerable interest in continuous processing, which can be explained with their potential advantages such as smaller footprint, easier scale-up, and more consistent product, better quality and quality assurance. Continuous downstream processing of drug-loaded ASDs opens new ways for automatic operation. Therefore, the formulation of poorly water-soluble drugs may be more effective and safe. However, developments can be challenging due to the poor flowability and feeding properties of ASDs. Consequently, this review pays special attention to these characteristics since the feeding of the components greatly influences the content uniformity in the final dosage form. The main purpose of this paper is to summarize the most important steps of the possible ASD-based continuous downstream processes in order to give a clear overview of current course lines and future perspectives.

Development and optimization of levodopa and benzylhydrazine orally disintegrating tablets by direct compression and response surface methodology

The number of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients with the advanced phase and motor fluctuations is increasing. The objective of this study is developing levodopa/benzylhydrazine orally disintegrating tablets (L/B ODTs), which would provide greater convenience and ease of use than conventional tablets for these patients. In the present study, the L/B ODTs were developed successfully with an optimized formulation using response surface methodology (RSM). The direct compression technology was employed for the preparation of L/B ODTs. Considerably shorter disintegration time and faster dissolution profile were obtained under the optimum formulation with microcrystalline cellulose 25.7%, cross-polyvinylpyrrolidone 6.22% and Sodium carboxymethyl starch 5.36%. The content uniformity (%) of levodopa and benzylhydrazine was 50 ± 1.4% and 14.25 ± 0.6%, respectively. Thickness, friability, hardness and wetting time were 2.8 ± 0.05 mm, 0.46 ± 0.21%, 5.42 ± 1.1 kp and 31.2 ± 2.1 s, respectively, and all of data well comply with the General Principles of the Chinese Pharmacopeia. Mannitol of 22% in formulation could bring a pleasant taste: sweet, cool and refreshing. Almost all the volunteers felt that the ODTs had good taste, no roughness, and no gritty feeling, indicating that the ODTs prepared had good palatability, so patients will have good compliance when taking medicine.

Evaluation of Abuse-Deterrent Characteristics of Tablets Prepared via Hot-Melt Extrusion

In this study, the effect of formulation variables and process parameters on the abuse-deterrent (AD) characteristics of a matrix tablet manufactured using hot-melt extrusion (HME) was investigated. The formulation variables included polyethylene oxide (PEO) grades and its input level, while the HME process parameters varied were barrel temperature profile and die diameter. Depending on the diameter of the extrudate (2.5 mm or 5.0 mm), two different downstream processes were used to prepare the tablets: cryo-milling followed by compression for the 2.5 mm extrudate, and cutting followed by compression for the 5.0 mm extrudate. A D-optimal statistical design was used to evaluate the impact of formulation and process parameters on various responses, including tablet physical strength, particle size after manipulation, syringeability and injectability, solution viscosity, extractability in solvents, and dissolution rates. It was found that the post-HME extrusion processing method played a critical role in affecting the AD characteristics of abuse-deterrent formulations, likely through changing the tablet compactability and porosity. When the extrudates were cryo-milled-compressed, the tablets could be readily manipulated by milling, which led to high degree of extractability. Under high alcohol concentration, burst drug release was observed for the tablets compressed from cryo-milled extrudates. Additionally, heat exposure during HME process caused significant drop in PEO solution viscosity, likely due to thermal degradation.

Methacrylate-Copolymer Eudragit EPO as a Solubility-Enabling Excipient for Anionic Drugs: Investigation of Drug Solubility, Intestinal Permeability, and Their Interplay

The purpose of this work was to investigate the use of the dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate-copolymer Eudragit EPO (EPO) in oral solubility-enabling formulations for anionic lipophilic drugs, aiming to guide optional formulation design and maximize oral bioavailability. We have studied the solubility, the permeability, and their interplay, using the low-solubility nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug mefenamic acid as a model drug. Then, we studied the biorelevant solubility enhancement of mefenamic acid from EPO-based formulations throughout the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), using the pH-dilution dissolution method. EPO allowed a profound and linear solubility increase of mefenamic acid, from 10 μg/mL without EPO to 9.41 mg/mL in the presence of 7.5% EPO (∼940-fold; 37 °C); however, a concomitant decrease of the drug permeability was obtained, both in vitro and in vivo in rats, indicating a solubility-permeability trade-off. In the absence of an excipient, the unstirred water layer (UWL) adjacent to the GI membrane was found to hinder the permeability of the drug, accounting for this UWL effect and revealing that the true membrane permeability allowed good prediction of the solubility-permeability trade-off as a function of EPO level using a direct relationship between the increased solubility afforded by a given EPO level and the consequent decreased permeability. Biorelevant dissolution studies revealed that EPO levels of 0.05 and 0.1% were insufficient to dissolve mefenamic acid dose during the entire dissolution time course, whereas 0.5 and 1% EPO allowed complete solubility with no drug precipitation. In conclusion, EPO may serve as a potent solubility-enabling excipient for BCS class II/IV acidic drugs; however, it should be used carefully. It is prudent to use the minimal EPO amounts just sufficient to dissolve the drug dose throughout the GIT and not more than that. Excess amounts of EPO provide no solubility gain and cause further permeability loss, jeopardizing the overall success of the formulation. This work may help the formulator to hit the optimal solubility-permeability balance, maximizing the oral bioavailability afforded by the formulation.

Twin-screw extrusion of sustained-release oral dosage forms and medical implants

Most of published reviews of twin-screw extrusion focused on its application for enhancing the bioavailability of amorphous solid dispersions while few of them focused on its use for manufacturing sustained-release oral dosage forms and medical implants, despite the considerable interest and success this process has garnered both in academia and in the pharmaceutical industry. Compared to conventional batch processing, twin-screw extrusion offers the advantages of continuous processing and the ability to prepare oral dosage forms and medical implants that have unique physicochemical and drug release attributes. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the formulation composition and processing conditions of twin-screw extrusion and how these factors affect the drug release properties of sustained-release dosage forms. This review also illustrates the unique advantages of this process by presenting case studies of a wide variety of commercial sustained-release products manufactured using twin-screw extrusion.