Tamoxifen loaded folic acid armed PEGylated magnetic nanoparticles for targeted imaging and therapy of cancer

Folic acid modified precision nanocarriers: charting new frontiers in breast cancer management beyond conventional therapies

Breast cancer presents a significant global health challenge, ranking highest incidence rate among all types of cancers. Functionalised nanocarriers offer a promising solution for precise drug delivery by actively targeting cancer cells through specific receptors, notably folate receptors. By overcoming the limitations of passive targeting in conventional therapies, this approach holds the potential for enhanced treatment efficacy through combination therapy. Encouraging outcomes from studies like in vitro and in vivo, underscore the promise of this innovative approach. This review explores the therapeutic potential of FA (Folic acid) functionalised nanocarriers tailored for breast cancer management, discussing various chemical modification techniques for functionalization. It examines FA-conjugated nanocarriers containing chemotherapeutics to enhance treatment efficacy and addresses the pharmacokinetic aspect of these functionalised nanocarriers. Additionally, the review integrates active targeting via folic acid with theranostics, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy, offering a comprehensive management strategy. Emphasising rigorous experimental validation for practical utility, the review underscores the need to bridge laboratory research to clinical application. While these functionalised nanocarriers show promise, their credibility and applicability in real-world settings necessitate thorough validation for effective clinical use.

Hypothesizing the Green Synthesis of Tamoxifen Loaded Magnetic Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death all over the world and is not only limited to females but also affects males. For estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, tamoxifen has been considered the gold-line therapy for many decades. However, due to the side effects associated with the use of tamoxifen, its use is only limited to individuals in high-risk groups and limits its clinical application to moderate and/or lower-risk groups. Thus, there is a necessity to decrease the dose of tamoxifen, which can be achieved by targeting the drug to breast cancer cells and limiting its absorption to other body parts. Artificial antioxidants used in the formulation preparation are assumed to upsurge the risk of cancer and liver damage in humans. The need of the hour is to explore bioefficient antioxidants from natural plant sources as they are safer and additionally possess antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. The objective of this hypothesis is to prepare tamoxifen-loaded PEGylated NiO nanoparticles using green chemistry, tumbling the toxic effects of the conventional method of synthesis for targeted delivery to breast cancer cells. The significance of the work is to hypothesize a green method for the synthesis of NiO nanoparticles that are eco-friendly, cost-effective, decrease multidrug resistance, and can be used for targeted therapy. Garlic extract contains an organosulfur compound (Allicin) which has drug-metabolizing, anti-oxidant, and tumour growth inhibition effects. In breast cancer, allicin sensitizes estrogen receptors, increasing the anticancer efficacy of tamoxifen and reducing offsite toxicity. Thus, this garlic extract would act as a reducing agent and a capping agent. The use of nickel salt can help in targeted delivery to breast cancer cells and, in turn, reduces drug toxicity in different organs. This novel strategy may aim for cancer management with less toxic agents acting as an apt therapeutic modality.

Research Progress of Chitosan-based Multifunctional Nanoparticles in Cancer Targeted Therapy

Conventional tumor therapeutic modalities, such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery, involve low tumor inhibition efficiency, non-targeted drug delivery, and side effects. The development of novel and practical nano-drug delivery systems (DDSs) for targeted tumor therapy has become particularly important. Among various bioactive nanoparticles, chitosan is considered a suitable candidate for drug delivery due to its nontoxicity, good biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The amino and hydroxyl groups of chitosan endow it with the diverse function of chemical modification, thereby improving its physical and biological properties to meet the requirements of advanced biomedical applications. Therefore, it is necessary to review the property and applications of chitosan- based materials in biomedicine. In this review, the characteristics of chitosan related to its applications are first introduced, and then the preparation and modification of chitosan-based nanoparticles, including the function tailoring of chitosan-modified nanoparticles, are demonstrated and discussed. Finally, the opportunities and challenges of chitosan- based nanomaterials in this emerging field are proposed from the perspective of the rational and systematic design for the biomedicine field.

Improving Tamoxifen Performance in Inducing Apoptosis and Hepatoprotection by Loading on a Dual Nanomagnetic Targeting System

BACKGROUND

Although tamoxifen (TMX) belongs to selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and selectively binds to estrogen receptors, it affects other estrogen-producing tissues due to passive diffusion and non-differentiation of normal and cancerous cells and leads to side effects.

METHODS

The problems expressed about tamoxifen (TMX) encouraged us to design a new drug delivery system based on magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) to simultaneously target two receptors on cancer cells through folic acid (FA) and hyaluronic acid (HA) groups. The mediator of binding of two targeting agents to MNPs is a polymer linker, including dopamine, polyethylene glycol, and terminal amine (DPN).

RESULTS

Zeta potential, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) methods confirmed that MNPs-DPN-HA-FA has a suitable size of ~105 nm and a surface charge of -41 mV, and therefore, it can be a suitable option for carrying TMX and increasing its solubility. The cytotoxic test showed that the highest concentration of MNPs-DPN-HA-FA-TMX decreased cell viability to about 11% after 72 h of exposure compared to the control. While the protective effect of modified MNPs on normal cells was evident, unlike tamoxifen, the survival rate of liver cells, even after 180 min of treatment, was not significantly different from the control group. The protective effect of MNPs was also confirmed by examining the amount of malondialdehyde, and no significant difference was observed in the amount of lipid peroxidation caused by modified MNPs compared to the control. Flow cytometry proved that TMX loaded onto modified MNPs can induce apoptosis by targeting the overexpressed receptors on cancer cells. Real-time PCR showed that the modified MNPs activated the intrinsic and extrinsic mitochondrial pathways of apoptosis, so the Bak1/Bclx ratio for MNPs-DPN-HAFA- TMX and free TMX was 70.82 and 0.38, respectively. Also, the expression of the caspase-3 gene increased 430 times compared to the control. On the other hand, only TNF gene expression, which is responsible for metastasis in some tumors, was decreased by both free TMX and MNPs-DPN-HA-FA-TMX. Finally, molecular docking proved that MNPs-DPN-HA-FA-TMX could provide a very stable interaction with both CD44 and folate receptors, induce apoptosis in cancer cells, and reduce hepatotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

All the results showed that MNPs-DPN-HA-FA-TMX can show good affinity to cancer cells using targeting agents and induce apoptosis in metastatic breast ductal carcinoma T-47D cell lines. Also, the protective effects of MNPs on hepatocytes are quite evident, and they can reduce the side effects of TMX.

Preparation and in Vitro Evaluation of Tamoxifen-Conjugated, Eco-Friendly, Agar-Based Hybrid Magnetic Nanoparticles for Their Potential Use in Breast Cancer Treatment

Tamoxifen is the drug of choice as hormonal therapy for hormone receptor-positive breast cancers and can reduce the risk of breast cancer recurrence. However, oral tamoxifen has a low bioavailability due to liver and intestinal metabolic passes. To overcome this problem and utilize the potential of this drug to its maximum, inorganic nanoparticle carriers have been exploited and tested to increase its bioavailability. Biocompatibility and unique magnetic properties make iron oxide nanoparticles an excellent choice as a drug delivery system. In this study, we developed and tested a "green synthesis" approach to synthesize iron nanoparticles from green tea extract and coated them with agar for longer stability (AG-INPs). Later, these hybrid nanoparticles were conjugated with tamoxifen (TMX). By using this approach, we synthesized stable agar-coated tamoxifen-conjugated iron nanoparticles (TMX-AG-INPs) and characterized them with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The average particle size of AG-INPs was 26.8 nm, while the average particle size of tamoxifen-loaded iron nanoparticles, TMX-AG-INPs, was 32.1 nm, as measured by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. The entrapment efficiency of TMX-AG-INPs obtained by the drug release profile was 88%, with a drug loading capacity of 43.5%. TMX-AG-INPs were significantly (p < 0.001) efficient in killing breast cancer cells when tested in vitro on the established breast cancer cell line MCF-7 by cell viability assay, indicating their potential to control cell proliferation.

Folate Receptor as a Biomarker and Therapeutic Target in Solid Tumors

Folate is a B vitamin necessary for basic biological functions, including rapid cell turnover occurring in cancer cell proliferation. Though the role of folate as a causative versus protective agent in carcinogenesis is debated, several studies have indicated that the folate receptor (FR), notably subtype folate receptor alpha (FRα), could be a viable biomarker for diagnosis, progression, and prognosis. Several cancers, including gastrointestinal, gynecological, breast, lung, and squamous cell head and neck cancers overexpress FR and are currently under investigation to correlate receptor status to disease state. Traditional chemotherapies have included antifolate medications, such as methotrexate and pemetrexed, which generate anticancer activity during the synthesis phase of the cell cycle. Increasingly, the repertoire of pharmacotherapies is expanding to include FR as a target, with a heterogenous pool of directed therapies. Here we discuss the FR, expression and effect in cancer biology, and relevant pharmacologic inhibitors.

Folic acid-decorated PEGylated magnetite nanoparticles as efficient drug carriers to tumor cells overexpressing folic acid receptor

The improved drug delivery systems (DDS) are needed for the targeted delivery of their therapeutic cargo (biologically active protein/peptide molecules, nucleic acids, vaccines, etc.) to diseased cells. Thus, we aimed to develop magnetite nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄), stabilized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and decorated (surface-functionalized) with folic acid (FA) (Fe₃O₄@PEG@FA) to ensure targeted internalization in cells expressing the folic acid receptors (FR). The Fe₃O₄@PEG@FA nanoparticles were synthesized by co-precipitation in a one-pot methodology. Curcumin (Curc), a polyphenol with anti-tumoral activity, was loaded on the nanoparticles, and FA-targeted (Fe₃O₄@PEG@FA@Curc) and non-targeted (Fe₃O₄@PEG@Curc) systems were obtained. The internalization of Fe₃O₄@PEG@FA@Curc and Fe₃O₄@PEG@Curc nanoparticles was determined in two tumor cell lines, the FR-positive MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cell line and A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cell line, expressing a low level of FR. The results showed that MCF-7 cells internalize FA-functionalized nanoparticles to a greater extent than non-targeted ones and also than A549 cells. The competitive studies performed in the presence of FA in excess suggested that internalization is an FR-dependent process. The increased internalization of Fe₃O₄@PEG@FA@Curc nanoparticles in MCF-7 cells is correlated with increased cytotoxicity in this cell line compared to A549 cells. In conclusion, the FA-functionalized magnetic systems can ensure a better internalization of the nanoparticles and can be used to deliver various therapeutic agents, both in cancer treatment and also in the treatment of other inflammation-associated diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, osteoarthritis, Crohn's disease or atherosclerosis.

High efficacy of tamoxifen-loaded L-lysine coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in cell cycle arrest and anti-cancer activity for breast cancer therapy

Introduction: Due to the side effects of drugs, the development of nanoscale drug delivery systems has led to a significant improvement in medicinal therapies due to drug pharmacokinetics changes, decreased toxicity, and increased half-life of the drug. This study aimed to synthesize tamoxifen (TMX)-loaded L-lysine coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as a nano-carrier to investigate its cytotoxic effects and anti-cancer properties against MCF-7 cancer cells.

Methods: Magnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were synthesized and coated with L-lysine (F-Lys NPs). Then, TMX was loaded onto these NPs. The characteristics of synthesized nanoparticles (F-Lys-TMX NPs) were evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The drug release was analyzed at pH 5.8 and pH 7.4. The MCF-7 cells were exposed to F-Lys-TMX NPs, F-Lys NPs, and TMX for 24, 48, and 72 hours. To evaluate the cytotoxic potential of designed nanoparticles, MTT and apoptosis assays, real-time PCR, and cell cycle analysis was carried out.

Results: The F-Lys-TMX NPs had spherical morphology with a size ranging from 9 to 30 nm. By increasing the nanoparticles concentration and treatment time, more cell proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction were observed in F-Lys-TMX NPs-treated cells compared to the TMX. The expression levels of ERBB2, cyclin D1, and cyclin E genes were down-regulated and expression levels of the caspase-3 and caspase-9 genes were up-regulated. Studies on the drug release revealed a slow and controlled pH-dependent release of the nanoparticles. Cell cycle analysis indicated that F-Lys-TMX NPs could arrest the cells at the G0/G1 phase.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that F-Lys-TMX NPs are more effective and have the potential for cell proliferation inhibition and apoptosis induction compared to the TMX. Hence, F-Lys-TMX NPs can be considered as an anti-cancer agent against MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

Recent advances in nanoscale targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death among women with high mortality rates worldwide. The exceptionally fast rate of metastasis, the emergence of drug-resistant mechanisms, and the occurrence of inadvertent side effects by cytotoxic chemotherapies often make conventional chemotherapy and immunotherapy treatments ineffective. Similar to other solid tumors, breast cancer can develop unique cellular and molecular characteristics forming an atypical permissive tumor microenvironment (TME). Due to the unique features of TME, cancer cells can further proliferate and coadapt with the stromal cells and evade immunosurveillance. aberrantly abundantly express various pieces of molecular machinery (the so-called oncomarkers) in favor of their survival, progression, metastasis, and further invasion. Such overexpressed oncomarkers can be exploited in the targeted therapy of cancer. Among breast cancer oncomarkers, epidermal growth factor receptors, particularly HER2, are considered as clinically valid molecular targets not only for the thorough diagnosis but also for the targeted therapy of the disease using different conventional and advanced nanoscale treatment modalities. This review aims to elaborate on the recent advances in the targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer, and discuss various types of multifunctional nanomedicines/theranostics, and antibody-/aptamer-drug conjugates.

Effects of Electromagnets on Bovine Corneal Endothelial Cells Treated with Dendrimer Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles

To improve bovine corneal endothelial cell (BCEC) migration, enhance cell energy, and facilitate symmetric cell distribution in corneal surfaces, an electromagnet device was fabricated. Twenty nanometer superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) functionalized with fourth-generation dendrimer macromolecules were synthesized, and their size and structure were evaluated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results confirmed the configuration of the dendrimer on the SPION surfaces. In vitro biocompatibility was assessed using the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay. No significant toxicity was noted on BCECs within 24 h of incubation. In the cell migration assay, cells treated with dendrimer-coated SPIONs exhibited a relatively high wound healing rate under sample addition (1 μg/mL) under a magnetic field. Real-time PCR on BCECs treated with dendrimer-coated SPIONs revealed upregulation of specific genes, including AT1P1 and NCAM1, for BCECs-dendrimer-coated SPIONs under a magnetic field. The three-dimensional dispersion of BCECs containing dendrimer-coated SPIONs under a magnetic field was evaluated using COMSOL Multiphysics software. The results revealed the BCECs-SPION vortex pattern layers in the corneal surface corresponded to the electromagnet's displacement from the ocular surface. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) indicated that dendrimer-coated SPIONs can be used as a T2 contrast agent.

Folate receptor-mediated delivery of 1-MDT-loaded mesoporous silica magnetic nanoparticles to target breast cancer cells

Aims: The efficiency of mesoporous silica magnetic nanoparticles (MSMNP) as a targeted drug-delivery system was investigated. Methods: The superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (NP) were synthesized, coated with mesoporous silica and conjugated with polyethylene glycol and methotrexate. Next, 1-methyl-D-tryptophan was loaded into the prepared nanosystems (NS). They were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, vibrating sample magnetometer, x-ray powder diffraction, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method and their biological impacts on breast cancer cells were evaluated. Results: The prepared NSs displayed suitable properties and showed enhanced internalization by folate-receptor-expressing cells, exerting efficient cytotoxicity, which was further enhanced by the near-infrared radiation irradiation. Conclusion: On the basis of our findings, the engineered NS is a promising multifunctional nanomedicine/theranostic for solid tumors.

Recent trends in biodegradable polyester nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Biodegradable polyester nanomaterials-based drug delivery vehicles (DDVs) have been largely used in most of the cancer treatments due to its high biological performance and wider applications. In several previous studies, various biodegradable and biocompatible polyester backbones were used which are poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), poly(propylene carbonate) (PPC), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS). These polyesters were fabricated into therapeutic nanoparticles that carry drug molecules to the target site during the cancer disease treatment. In this review, we elaborately discussed the chemical synthesis of different synthetic polyesters and their use as nanodrug carriers (NCs) in cancer treatment. Further, we highlighted in brief the recent developments of metal-free semi-aromatic polyester nanomaterials along with its role as cancer drug delivery vehicles.

Promising tamoxifen-loaded biocompatible hybrid magnetic nanoplatforms against breast cancer cells: synthesis, characterization and biological evaluation

Improved efficacy and safety of tamoxifen-loaded hybrid nanocarriers based on Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, l-cysteine and hyaluronic acid for breast cancer therapy.

Nile Red-Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)/Silica Nanocomposite Particles Increase the Sensitivity of Cervical Cancer Cells to Tamoxifen

Tamoxifen (TAM) is a hormonal drug and is mainly used as an anti-estrogen in breast cancer patients. TAM binds to estrogen receptors (ERs), resulting in inhibition of estrogen signaling pathways and thus, a downregulation of cell proliferation. Cancer cells with negative or low ER expression will not uptake TAM and will show low response. Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanoparticles were prepared using surfactant-free emulsion polymerization, then were loaded with Nile red (NR), which resulted in PMMA-NR. To enhance TAM delivery to cervical cancer cells (HELA), which is considered ER-negative, we loaded TAM and polymethyl methacrylate nanoparticles-Nile-red into silica (PMMA-NR-Si-TAM). The uptake and intracellular distribution were visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy, and the in vitro cytotoxic activity was evaluated by MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide) assay using HELA and non-tumorigenic cell line HFF-1. The sensitivity of HELA (LC50: 207.31 µg/mL) and HFF-1 (LC50: 234.08 µg/mL) to free TAM was very low. However, after the encapsulation of TAM with PMMA-NR, the sensitivity significantly increased HELA (LC50: 71.83 µg/mL) and HFF-1 (LC50: 37.36 µg/mL). This indicates that TAM can be used for the treatment of ER-negative cervical cancer once conjugated to PMMA-NR nanoparticles. In addition, the PMMA-NR formulation appears to be highly suitable for cancer imaging and drug delivery.

Novel Tamoxifen Nanoformulations for Improving Breast Cancer Treatment: Old Wine in New Bottles

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the leading causes of death from cancer in women; second only to lung cancer. Tamoxifen (TAM) is a hydrophobic anticancer agent and a selective estrogen modulator (SERM), approved by the FDA for hormone therapy of BC. Despite having striking efficacy in BC therapy, concerns regarding the dose-dependent carcinogenicity of TAM still persist, restricting its therapeutic applications. Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most important strategies to solve the issue of TAM toxicity, owing to the ability of nano-enabled-formulations to deliver smaller concentrations of TAM to cancer cells, over a longer period of time. Various TAM-containing-nanosystems have been successfully fabricated to selectively deliver TAM to specific molecular targets found on tumour membranes, reducing unwanted toxic effects. This review begins with an outline of breast cancer, the current treatment options and a history of how TAM has been used as a combatant of BC. A detailed discussion of various nanoformulation strategies used to deliver lower doses of TAM selectively to breast tumours will then follow. Finally, a commentary on future perspectives of TAM being employed as a targeting vector, to guide the delivery of other therapeutic and diagnostic agents selectively to breast tumours will be presented.

Multifunctional nanomedicines for targeting epidermal growth factor receptor in colorectal cancer

Systemic administration of chemotherapeutics by nanocarriers (NCs) functionalized with targeting agents provides a localized accumulation of drugs in the target tissues and cells. Advanced nanoscaled medicaments can enter into the tumor microenvironment (TME) and overcome the uniquely dysregulated biological settings of TME, including highly pressurized tumor interstitial fluid in an acidic milieu. Such multimodal nanomedicines seem to be one of the most effective treatment modalities against solid tumors such as colorectal cancer (CRC). To progress and invade, cancer cells overexpress various oncogenes and molecular markers such as epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFRs), which can be exploited for targeted delivery of nanoscaled drug delivery systems (DDSs). In fact, to develop effective personalized multimodal nanomedicines, the type of solid tumor and status of the disease in each patient should be taken into consideration. While the development of such multimodal-targeted nanomedicines is largely dependent on the expression level of oncomarkers, the type of NCs and homing/imaging agents play key roles in terms of their efficient applications. In this review, we provide deep insights into the development of EGFR-targeting nanomedicines and discuss various types of nanoscale DDSs (e.g., organic and inorganic nanoparticles) for targeting of the EGFR-positive solid tumors such as CRC.

Applications and strategies in nanodiagnosis and nanotherapy in lung cancer

Lung cancer is the second most common cancer and the leading cause of death in both men and women in the world. Lung cancer is heterogeneous in nature and diagnosis is often at an advanced stage as it develops silently in the lung and is frequently associated with high mortality rates. Despite the advances made in understanding the biology of lung cancer, progress in early diagnosis, cancer therapy modalities and considering the mechanisms of drug resistance, the prognosis and outcome still remains low for many patients. Nanotechnology is one of the fastest growing areas of research that can solve many biological problems such as cancer. A growing number of therapies based on using nanoparticles (NPs) have successfully entered the clinic to treat pain, cancer, and infectious diseases. Recent progress in nanotechnology has been encouraging and directed to developing novel nanoparticles that can be one step ahead of the cancer reducing the possibility of multi-drug resistance. Nanomedicine using NPs is continuingly impacting cancer diagnosis and treatment. Chemotherapy is often associated with limited targeting to the tumor, side effects and low solubility that leads to insufficient drug reaching the tumor. Overcoming these drawbacks of chemotherapy by equipping NPs with theranostic capability which is leading to the development of novel strategies. This review provides a synopsis of current progress in theranostic applications for lung cancer diagnosis and therapy using NPs including liposome, polymeric NPs, quantum dots, gold NPs, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes and magnetic NPs.

Application and biomolecular study of functionalized folic acid-dendrimer nanoparticles in drug delivery

We determined the loading efficacy of folic acid - PAMAM - G3 and folic acid - PAMAM - G4 nanoparticles with doxorubicin (Dox), tamoxifen (Tam) and tetracycline (Tet) in aqueous solution at pH 7.2. Thermodynamic parameters ΔH⁰ -16 to -4 (kJ mol^-1), ΔS⁰ 31 to -0.3 (J mol^-1K^-1) and ΔG⁰ -14 to -11 (kJ mol^-1) showed drug folic acid-PAMAM bindings are via ionic, H-bonding and van der Waals interactions. As acid - PAMAM size increased the stability and loading efficacy of drug-polymer conjugates were increased. The order of stability for drug-nanoparticles was doxorubicin > tetracycline > tamoxifen. TEM analysis showed major polymer morphological changes, upon drug encapsulation. Folic acid-PAMAM conjugates are effective drug delivery tools in vitro. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Preparation of iron oxide mesoporous magnetic microparticles as novel multidrug carriers for synergistic anticancer therapy and deep tumor penetration

The preparation of mesoporous iron oxides with controllable physiochemical properties for effective therapeutic drug delivery remains a formidable challenge. Herein, iron oxide mesoporous magnetic microparticles (IO-MMMs) were prepared by a modified reverse hard-templating approach using, for the first time, acid-prepared mesoporous spheres (APMS) as the hard silica template. The obtained mesostructures exhibited remarkably high surface area and large pore volumes (S_BET = 240 m²/g and V_pore = 0.55 cm³/g), controllable average sizes, generally uniform morphologies, and excellent biocompatibilities, allowing them to achieve optimal drug release in cancer cells and tumor tissues. IO-MMM carriers were able to co-load high amounts of hydrophilic chemotherapeutic drugs (Dox or Daun) and/or hydrophobic hormonal anticancer drugs (Tam), and release them sustainably in a pH-dependent manner, utilizing the fluorescence of Daun to real-time trace the intracellular drug distribution, and employing Daun/Tam to treat cancer by combined chemo/hormonal therapy. Cytotoxicity assays against different types of cancerous cells showed that the combinatory Daun/Tam@IO-MMM formulation significantly reduced the viability of metastatic MCF7 and KAIMRC1 breast as well as HCT8 colorectal cancer cells, with the least potency towards non-cancerous normal primary cells (up to 10-fold). Electron, flow, and live confocal microscopy imaging confirmed that the loaded vehicles were successfully and differentially uptaken by the different tested cells, gradually releasing their payloads, and causing apoptotic cell death. Importantly, compared to free drugs, Daun/Tam@IO-MMMs displayed enhanced drug accumulation in patient breast primary tumor tissues, deeply penetrating into the tumor region and killing the tumor cells inside. The designed carriers described here, thus, constitute a novel promising magnetic mesoporous smart system that entraps different kinds of drugs and release them in a controlled manner for combinatorial chemo/hormonal cancer theranostics. This multifactorial platform may open new avenues in cancer therapy as efficient synergistic antitumor system through overcoming limitations of conventional cancer therapy.

Designing multifunctional cancer-targeted nanosystem for magnetic resonance molecular imaging-guided theranostics of lung cancer

The integration of diagnosis and therapy is an effective way to improve therapeutic effects for cancer patients, which has acquired widely attentions from researchers. Herein, a multifunctional drug-loaded nanosystem (F/A-PLGA@DOX/SPIO) has been designed and synthesized to reduce the side effects of traditional chemotherapy drugs and realize simultaneous tumor diagnosis and treatment. The surface modification of folic acid (FA) and activatable cell-penetrating peptide (ACPP) endows the nanosystem with excellent cancer targeting capabilities, thus reducing toxicity to normal organs. Besides, the F/A-PLGA@DOX/SPIO nanosystem can serve as an excellent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) T2-negative contrast agent. More importantly, according to in vitro experiments, the F/A-PLGA@DOX/SPIO nanosystem can promote the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within A549 lung cancer cells, inducing cell apoptosis, greatly enhancing the antineoplastic effect. Furthermore, with the help of MRI technology, the targeting imaging of the F/A-PLGA@DOX/SPIO nanosystem within tumors and the dynamic monitoring of medicine efficacy can be realized. Therefore, this study provided a multifunctional drug-loaded F/A-PLGA@DOX/SPIO targeted nanosystem for magnetic resonance molecular imaging-guided theranostics, which has excellent potential for the application in tumor diagnosis and therapy.

Bispecific therapeutic aptamers for targeted therapy of cancer: a review on cellular perspective

Aptamers (Aps), as short single-strand nucleic acids, can bind to their corresponding molecular targets with the high affinity and specificity. In comparison with the monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and peptides, unique physicochemical and biological characteristics of Aps make them excellent targeting agents for different types of cancer molecular markers (CMMs). Much attention has been paid to the Ap-based multifunctional chimeric and therapeutic systems, which provide promising outcomes in the targeted therapy of various formidable diseases, including malignancies. In the Ap-based chimeric systems, a targeting Ap is conjugated to another therapeutic molecule (e.g., siRNA/miRNA, Ap, toxins, chemotherapeutic agents, DNAzyme/ribozymes) with a capability of binding to a specific cell surface receptor at the desired target site. Having been engineered as multifunctional nanosystems (NSs), Ap-based hybrid scaffolds can be used to concurrently target multiple markers/pathways in cancerous cells, causing drastic inhibitory effects on the growth and the progression of tumor cells. Multi/bispecific Aps composed of two/more Aps provide a versatile tool for the optimal and active targeting of cell surface receptor(s) with markedly high affinity and avidity. Targeting the optimum activity of key receptors and dominant signaling pathways in the activation of immunity, the multi/bispecific Ap-based therapeutics can also be used to enhance the antitumor activity of the immune system. Further, the bispecific systems can be designed to induce cytotoxicity in a heterogeneous population of cancer cells with different CMMs. In this review, we provide some important insights into the construction and applications of the Ap-based chimeric NSs and discuss the multifunctional Ap chimera and their effects on the signaling pathways in cancer.

Enzyme replacement therapies: what is the best option?

Despite many beneficial outcomes of the conventional enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), several limitations such as the high-cost of the treatment and various inadvertent side effects including the occurrence of an immunological response against the infused enzyme and development of resistance to enzymes persist. These issues may limit the desired therapeutic outcomes of a majority of the lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs). Furthermore, the biodistribution of the recombinant enzymes into the target cells within the central nervous system (CNS), bone, cartilage, cornea, and heart still remain unresolved. All these shortcomings necessitate the development of more effective diagnosis and treatment modalities against LSDs. Taken all, maximizing the therapeutic response with minimal undesired side effects might be attainable by the development of targeted enzyme delivery systems (EDSs) as a promising alternative to the LSDs treatments, including different types of mucopolysaccharidoses ( MPSs ) as well as Fabry, Krabbe, Gaucher and Pompe diseases.

How can nanotechnology help the fight against breast cancer?

In this review we provide a broad overview on the use of nanotechnology for the fight against breast cancer (BC). Nowadays, detection, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention may be possible thanks to the application of nanotechnology to clinical practice. Taking into consideration the different forms of BC and the disease status, nanomaterials can be designed to meet the most forefront objectives of modern therapy and diagnosis. We have analyzed in detail three main groups of nanomaterial applications for BC treatment and diagnosis. We have identified several types of drugs successfully conjugated with nanomaterials. We have analyzed the main important imaging techniques and all nanomaterials used to help the non-invasive, early detection of the lesions. Moreover, we have examined theranostic nanomaterials as unique tools, combining imaging, detection, and therapy for BC. This state of the art review provides a useful guide depicting how nanotechnology can be used to overcome the current barriers in BC clinical practice, and how it will shape the future scenario of treatments, prevention, and diagnosis, revolutionizing the current approaches, e.g., reducing the suffering related to chemotherapy.

Mucin-1 aptamer-armed superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for targeted delivery of doxorubicin to breast cancer cells

Introduction: Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) can be functionalized with various agents (e.g., targeting and therapeutic agents) and used for targeted imaging/therapy of cancer. In the present study, we engineered doxorubicin (DOX)-conjugated anti-mucin -1 (MUC-1) aptamer (Ap)-armed PEGylated SPIONs for targeted delivery of DOX molecules to the breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Methods: The SPIONs were synthesized using the thermal decomposition method and modified by polyethylene glycol (PEG) to maximize their biocompatibility and minimize any undesired cytotoxicity effects. Subsequently, DOX molecules were loaded onto the SPIONs, which were further armed with amine-modified MUC-1 aptamer by EDC/NHS chemistry. Results: The morphologic and size analyses of nanoparticles (NPs) by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) revealed spherical and monodisperse MNPs with a size range of 5-64 nm. The FT-IR spectrophotometry and 1 HNMR analysis confirmed the surface modification of NPs. The cytotoxicity assay of the aptamer-armed MNPs exhibited a higher death rate in the MUC-1 over-expressing MCF-7 cells as compared to the MUC-1 under-expressing MDA-MB-231 cells. The flow cytometry analysis of the engineered Ap-armed SPIONs revealed a higher uptake as compared to the SPIONs alone. Conclusion: Based on our findings, the anti-MUC-1 Ap-armed PEGylated SPIONs loaded with DOX molecules could serve as an effective multifunctional theranostics for simultaneous detection and eradication of MUC-1-positive breast cancer cells.

Combinational drug delivery using nanocarriers for breast cancer treatments: A review

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer in women that requires special attention due to low response to conventional treatments. The common method for treating cancer (especially BC) is applying a single anticancer agent, however, due to some disadvantages including cytotoxicity, side effects, and multidrug resistance, the efficiency and application of this method are limited. To overcome these challenges, the combinational delivery of anticancer drugs (including chemical agents, genetic materials, etc.) has been introduced. To increase the efficacy of this new method, several nanocarriers including inorganic nanoparticles (such as, magnetic nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, etc.) and organic ones (e.g., dendrimers, liposomes, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles) have been used. Based on the literature, combinational delivery using nanocarriers showed promising results in the treatment of BC. In this review, combination regimens for the treatment of BC, nanocarriers containing combinations of pharmaceutical agents (including small molecule chemotherapeutic, biological, and gene therapy agents) as an opportunity to overcome chemotherapy challenges and, finally, examples of these formulations have been presented. This review aims to provide a better understanding of these increasingly important new methods of cancer treatment and the main issues and key considerations for a rational design of nanocarriers used in combinational delivery of different synergistic anticancer agents. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 106A: 2272-2283, 2018.

From the Cover: Potentiation of Drug-Induced Phospholipidosis In Vitro through PEGlyated Graphene Oxide as the Nanocarrier

Cationic amphiphilic drugs (CADs) are small molecules that can induce phospholipidosis (PLD), causing the intracellular accumulation of phospholipid in the lamellar bodies. Nanotechnology based drug delivery systems have been used widely, while it is unknown if drug-induced PLD (DIP) can be potentiated through drug retention by indigestible nanocarriers. Due to the high drug loading capacity of graphene, we investigated if PEGylated graphene oxide (PEG-GO) loaded with CAD could potentiate DIP. Tamoxifen induced the accumulation of NBD-PE, a fluorescence labeled phospholipid in human hepatoma HepG2 cells, while PEG-GO loaded with tamoxifen (PEG-GO/tamoxifen) further potentiated PLD. PEG-GO/tamoxifen induced more gene expression of PLD marker than tamoxifen alone. PEG-GO enhanced DIP was also observed for other CAD, indicating that nanocarrier potentiated DIP could be universal. More lamellar bodies were observed in PEG-GO/tamoxifen treated cells than tamoxifen alone by transmission electron microscopy. When compared with tamoxifen alone, PEG-GO/tamoxifen showed a delayed but potent PLD. In addition, the retarded PLD recovery by PEG-GO/tamoxifen indicated that the reversibility of DIP was interfered. Confocal microscopy revealed the increased number of lysosomes, greater expression of lysosomal associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP2) (a PLD marker), and an increase in the co-localization between lysosome/LAMP2 and NBD-PE by PEG-GO/tamoxifen rather than tamoxifen alone. Finally, we found that PEG-GO or/and tamoxifen-induced PLD seemed to have no correlation with autophagy. This research suggests pharmaceutical companies and regulatory agencies that if nanoparticles are used as the vectors for drug delivery, the adverse drug effects may be further potentiated probably through the long-term accumulation of nanocarriers.

Recent advances in aptamer-armed multimodal theranostic nanosystems for imaging and targeted therapy of cancer

The side effects of chemotherapeutics during the course of cancer treatment limit their clinical outcomes. The most important mission of the modern cancer therapy modalities is the delivery of anticancer drugs specifically to the target cells/tissue in order to avoid/reduce any inadvertent non-specific impacts on the healthy normal cells. Nanocarriers decorated with a designated targeting ligand such as aptamers (Aps) and antibodies (Abs) are able to deliver cargo molecules to the target cells/tissue without affecting other neighboring cells, resulting in an improved treatment of cancer. For targeted therapy of cancer, different ligands (e.g., protein, peptide, Abs, Aps and small molecules) have widely been used in the development of different targeting drug delivery systems (DDSs). Of these homing agents, nucleic acid Aps show unique targeting potential with high binding affinity to a variety of biological targets (e.g., genes, peptides, proteins, and even cells and organs). Aps have widely been used as the targeting agent, in large part due to their unique 3D structure, simplicity in synthesis and functionalization, high chemical flexibility, low immunogenicity and toxicity, and cell/tissue penetration capability in some cases. Here, in this review, we provide important insights on Ap-decorated multimodal nanosystems (NSs) and discuss their applications in targeted therapy and imaging of cancer.

Nanomedicine: An effective tool in cancer therapy

Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) have been used in delivering anticancer drugs to the site of action. This area has become more attractive in recent years due to optimal size and negligible undesirable side effects caused by the NPs. The focus of this review is to explore various types of NPs and their surface/chemical modifications as well as attachment of targeting ligands for tuning their properties in order to facilitate targeted delivery to the cancer sites in a rate-controlled manner. Heme compatibility, biodistribution, longer circulation time, hydrophilic lipophilic balance for high bioavailability, prevention of drug degradation and leakage are important in transporting drugs to the targeted cancer sites. The review discusses advantages of polymeric, magnetic, gold, and mesoporous silica NPs in delivering chemotherapeutic agents over the conventional dosage formulations along with their shortcomings/risks and possible solutions/alternatives.

PAMAM dendrimers in drug delivery: loading efficacy and polymer morphology

The binding efficacy of anticancer drugs doxorubicin and tamoxifen with polyamidoamine (PAMAM-G4) dendrimers was studied in aqueous solution at physiological pH. The results of multiple spectroscopic methods, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and molecular modeling of conjugated drug–polymer were examined. Structural analysis showed that drug–polymer conjugation occurs mainly via H-bonding and hydrophilic and hydrophobic contacts. Doxorubicin forms a more stable conjugate with PAMAM-G4 than tamoxifen. The drug loading efficacy was 40%–50%. The TEM images showed major changes in the PAMAM morphology upon drug encapsulation. Modeling showed that drug is located in the polymer surface and in the internal cavities. PAMAM nanoparticles are capable of transporting doxorubicin and tamoxifen in vitro. This minireview presents the most recent work performed with the dendrimers demonstrating their usefulness for drug delivery in cancer therapy.

Doxorubicin-conjugated D-glucosamine- and folate- bi-functionalised InP/ZnS quantum dots for cancer cells imaging and therapy

Nanoscaled quantum dots (QDs), with unique optical properties have been used for the development of theranostics. Here, InP/ZnS QDs were synthesised and functionalised with folate (QD-FA), D-glucosamine (QD-GA) or both (QD-FA-GA). The bi-functionalised QDs were further conjugated with doxorubicin (QD-FA-GA-DOX). Optimum Indium to fatty acid (In:MA) ratio was 1:3.5. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs revealed spherical morphology for the QDs (11 nm). Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spectrum confirmed the chemical composition of the QDs. MTT analysis in the OVCAR-3 cells treated with bare QDs, QD-FA, QD-GA, QD-FA-GA and QD-FA-GA-DOX (0.2 mg/mL of QDs) after 24 h indicated low toxicity for the bare QDs and functionalised QDs (about 80-90% cell viability). QD-FA-GA-DOX nanoparticles elicited toxicity in the cells. Cellular uptake of the engineered QDs were investigated in both folate receptor (FR)-positive OVCAR-3 cells and FR-negative A549 cells using fluorescence microscopy and FACS flow cytometry. The FA-functionalised QDs showed significantly higher uptake in the FR-positive OVCAR-3 cells, nonetheless the GA-functionalised QDs resulted in an indiscriminate uptake in both cell lines. In conclusion, our findings indicated that DOX-conjugated FA-armed QDs can be used as theranostics for simultaneous imaging and therapy of cancer.

Recent advances in targeted delivery of tissue plasminogen activator for enhanced thrombolysis in ischaemic stroke

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is the only FDA approved medical treatment for the ischaemic stroke. However, it associates with some inevitable limitations, including: short therapeutic window, extremely short half-life and low penetration in large clots. Systemic administration may lead to complications such as haemorrhagic conversion in the brain and relapse in the form of re-occlusion. Furthermore, ultrasound has been utilised in combination with contrast agents, echogenic liposome, microspheres or nanoparticles (NPs) carrying tPA for improving thrombolysis - an approach that has resulted in slight improvement of tPA delivery and facilitated thrombolysis. Most of these delivery systems are able to extend the circulating half-life and clot penetration of tPA. Various technologies employed for ameliorated thrombolytic therapy are in different phases, some are in final steps for clinical applications while some others are under investigations for their safety and efficacy in human cases. Here, recent progresses on the thrombolytic therapy using novel nano- and micro-systems incorporating tPA are articulated. Of these, liposomes and microspheres, polymeric NPs and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are discussed. Key technologies implemented for efficient delivery of tPA and advanced thrombolytic therapy and their advantages/disadvantages are further expressed.

The reversion of anti-cancer drug antagonism of tamoxifen and docetaxel by the hyaluronic acid-decorated polymeric nanoparticles

Docetaxel (DTX) and tamoxifen (TMX) are first-line drugs used to treat breast cancer. However when used in combination, they produce antagonism because of their differential metabolic pathways. In order to prevent this antagonism, an amphiphilic copolymer, cholesterol modified hyaruronic acid (HA-CHOL), was synthesized for investigating the co-delivery of TMX and DTX. In vitro drug release experiment of the Co-encapsulated (encapsulated DTX+TMX) nanoparticles (Co-NPs) revealed that NPs with unique release mechanism can markedly reduce the release of these drugs in the circulatory system. However, when reaching in cell, TMX can release rapidly to prevent DTX from coming into contact with metabolizing enzymes. In vitro cytotoxicity experiment revealed that the Co-NPs exhibited a significant synergistic effect for inhibiting the proliferation of the cancer cell lines A549, MCF7 and S180. NPs carrying Coumarin-6(Cou6) exhibited increased cellular uptake compared with Cou6 solution at similar drug concentrations. As an in vivo treatment of xenograft tumors involving 180 cells, the Co-NPs displayed a clear tumor-inhibiting effect. This led us to conclude that the reversion of drug antagonism by NPs was attributed to the increased stability of the nanoparticles in the blood circulation, the efficient cellular uptake, the hierarchical drug metabolism in the tumor and the good and orderly delivery of the drugs to the tumor tissue.

Molecular Imaging of Cancer with Nanoparticle-Based Theranostic Probes

Although advancements in medical technology supporting cancer diagnosis and treatment have improved survival, these technologies still have limitations. Recently, the application of noninvasive imaging for cancer diagnosis and therapy has become an indispensable component in clinical practice. However, current imaging contrasts and tracers, which are in widespread clinical use, have their intrinsic limitations and disadvantages. Nanotechnologies, which have improved in vivo detection and enhanced targeting efficiency for cancer, may overcome some of the limitations of cancer diagnosis and therapy. Theranostic nanoparticles have great potential as a therapeutic model, which possesses the ability of their nanoplatforms to load targeted molecule for both imaging and therapeutic functions. The resulting nanosystem will likely be critical with the growth of personalized medicine because of their diagnostic potential, effectiveness as a drug delivery vehicle, and ability to oversee patient response to therapy. In this review, we discuss the achievements of modern nanoparticles with the goal of accurate tumor imaging and effective treatment and discuss the future prospects.

Molecular machineries of pH dysregulation in tumor microenvironment: potential targets for cancer therapy

Introduction: Cancer is an intricate disorder/dysfunction of cells that can be defined as a genetic heterogeneity in human disease. Therefore, it is characterized by several adaptive complex hallmarks. Among them, the pH dysregulation appears as a symbol of aberrant functions within the tumor microenvironment (TME). In comparison with normal tissues, in the solid tumors, we face with an irregular acidification and alkalinization of the extracellular and intracellular fluids. Methods: In this study, we comprehensively discussed the most recent reports on the hallmarks of solid tumors to provide deep insights upon the molecular machineries involved in the pH dysregulation of solid tumors and their impacts on the initiation and progression of cancer. Results: The dysregulation of pH in solid tumors is fundamentally related to the Warburg effect and hypoxia, leading to expression of a number of molecular machineries, including: NHE1, H+ pump V-ATPase, CA-9, CA-12, MCT-1, GLUT-1. Activation of proton exchangers and transporters (PETs) gives rise to formation of TME. This condition favors the cancer cells to evade from the anoikis and apoptosis, granting them aggressive and metastasis phenotype, as well as resistance to chemotherapy and radiation therapy. This review aimed to discuss the key molecular changes of tumor cells in terms of bio-energetics and cancer metabolism in relation with pH dysregulation. During this phenomenon, the intra- and extracellular metabolites are altered and/or disrupted. Such molecular alterations provide molecular hallmarks for direct targeting of the PETs by potent relevant inhibitors in combination with conventional cancer therapies as ultimate therapy against solid tumors. Conclusion: Taken all, along with other treatment strategies, targeting the key molecular machineries related to intra- and extracellular metabolisms within the TME is proposed as a novel strategy to inhibit or block PETs that are involved in the pH dysregulation of solid tumors.