Cellular uptake and anticancer effects of mucoadhesive curcumin-containing chitosan nanoparticles

Redox-activatable inhalable mucoadhesive proteinic nanotherapeutics for targeted treatment of lung cancer

Inhalation delivery has been considered a promising choice for treating lung cancer because it can shuttle therapeutic payloads directly to cancer tissues via simple and noninvasive procedures while reducing systemic toxicity. However, its clinical application still faces challenges, especially for delivering hydrophobic chemotherapeutic drugs, due to poor absorption on mucosal tissues and limited therapeutic performance. Herein, we propose inhalable mucoadhesive proteinic nanoparticles (NPs) capable of facilitating reliable pulmonary drug delivery and redox-responsive anticancer therapeutic effects to realize noninvasive, localized treatment of lung cancer in a highly biocompatible, site-specific manner. Thiolated mussel adhesive protein (MAP)-based NPs (thMAP NPs) can be administered to target tissues via an easy and facile nebulization process due to their superior MAP-driven adhesion ability and sufficient structural integrity. Curcumin (Cur)-loaded thMAP NPs (thMAP@Cur NPs) demonstrated efficient cellular uptake through the thiol-mediated pathway and controlled the intracellular release of Cur in response to the reductive environment in cancer cells. The nebulized thMAP@Cur NPs elicited prolonged retention in lung tissue without causing any detectable adverse effects, leading to significant inhibition of metastatic lung cancer in vivo. Thus, these protein-based redox-responsive mucoadhesive NPs hold great promise as robust inhalable drug delivery platforms to achieve effective, localized treatment of pulmonary cancer and other respiratory diseases.

Assembly of foxtail millet prolamin/chitosan hydrochloride/carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin in acetic acid aqueous solution for enhanced curcumin retention

The aim of this work is to investigate the assembly of foxtail millet prolamin (FP) with chitosan hydrochloride (CHC) and carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin (CMCD) in acetic acid aqueous solutions. The proportion of acetic acid has a positive impact on the disintegration of FP. With the use of 91.0 % (v/v) acetic acid, FP forms smaller particles of approximately 45 nm (naked FP particles) and 220 nm (FP - CHC - CMCD hybrid particles). In the case of using 61.5 % (v/v) acetic acid, the microstructures of bare FP particles and 570 nm composite FP nanoparticles (NPs) are looser, about 485 nm. Acetic acid inhibits the noncovalent bonds, including the hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding and electrostatic attractions between FP and polysaccharides. Therefore, 3.8 % (v/v) acetic acid can nucleate FP to form more compact FP hybrid particles for delivering curcumin (Cur) with higher encapsulation efficiency, storage stability and release performance, and improve the antibacterial and anticancer activity of Cur.

Chitosan Micro/Nanocapsules in Action: Linking Design, Production, and Therapeutic Application

pH sensitivity of chitosan allows for precise phase transitions in acidic environments, controlling swelling and shrinking, making chitosan suitable for drug delivery systems. pH transitions are modulated by the presence of cross-linkers by the functionalization of the chitosan chain. This review relays a summary of chitosan functionalization and tailoring to optimize drug release. The potential to customize chitosan for different environments and therapeutic uses introduces opportunities for drug encapsulation and release. The focus on improving drug encapsulation and sustained release in specific tissues is an advanced interpretation, reflecting the evolving role of chitosan in achieving targeted and more efficient therapeutic outcomes. This review describes strategies to improve solubility and stability and ensure the controlled release of encapsulated drugs. The discussion on optimizing factors like cross-linking density, particle size, and pH for controlled drug release introduces a deeper understanding of how to achieve specific therapeutic effects. These strategies represent a refined approach to designing chitosan-based systems, pushing the boundaries of sustained release technologies and offering new avenues for precise drug delivery profiles.

Construction of biopolymer-based hydrogel beads for encapsulation, retention, and colonic delivery of tributyrin: Development of functional beverages (fortified bubble tea)

Tributyrin (TB) can be hydrolyzed into short chain fatty acids (butyric acid) in the gastrointestinal tract, which are claimed to exhibit beneficial health effects in the colon. However, digestion of tributyrin in the stomach and small intestine may promote its absorption in the upper gastrointestinal tract, thereby reducing its potential colonic health benefits. In this study, we therefore developed a novel method of encapsulating emulsified tributyrin within biopolymer-based hydrogel beads (≈ 800 μm) that were then encapsulated inside the boba beads (≈ 8-10 mm) found in bubble tea. The hydrogel beads were designed to retain and protect the tributyrin under upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT) conditions, but then release it within the colon. The concentration of tributyrin within the boba beads was 33.3 mg/g, which is above the value reported to exhibit health benefits. The morphology, encapsulation properties, water holding capacity, stability, and swelling properties of the tributyrin-loaded boba beads were characterized. Tapioca-based beads exhibited a larger degree of swelling when incubated in water for 12h (>95 %), whereas agar-based beads did not (< 20 %). In addition, the potential gastrointestinal fate of both free and encapsulated tributyrin oil droplets was assessed using an in vitro digestion model. The free tributyrin oil droplets were almost completely hydrolyzed (103.2 %) by the end of the small intestine phase, whereas the tributyrin oil droplets encapsulated within the agar-based (29.4 %) or tapioca-based (40.3 %) boba beads were much more resistant to digestion. The tapioca-based beads were partially broken down as they passed through the simulated GIT, while the agar-based beads maintained their structural integrity. The tapioca-based beads were gradually broken down as they passed through the simulated GIT, while the agar-based ones maintained their structural integrity. Agar beads were also harder, more resilient, and chewier than the tapioca ones. Both types of boba beads tended to swell and disintegrate when heated to high temperatures (90 °C), with the effect being more pronounced for the agar beads. Overall, our results suggest that the agar-based boba beads had greater potential for the delivery of tributyrin to the colon than the tapioca-based ones. The recent popularity of bubble tea means that it may be a suitable vehicle for delivering bioactive food components, like functional lipids, vitamins, nutraceuticals, or probiotics.

Sweeten the pill: Multi-faceted polysaccharide-based carriers for colorectal cancer treatment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) ranks as the second deadliest cancer globally and the third most common malignant tumor. While surgery remains the primary treatment for CRC, alternative therapies such as chemotherapy, molecular targeted therapy, and immunotherapy are also commonly used. The significant side effects and toxicity of conventional drugs drive the search for novel targeted therapies, including the design of advanced drug delivery systems. Polysaccharide-based biopolymers, with their low toxicity, non-immunogenic behavior, synergistic interactions with other biopolymers, and tissue and cell compatibility, emerge as excellent drug carriers for this application. This review aims to provide an in-depth overview of recent advancements in developing polysaccharide-based biopolymeric carriers for anticancer compounds in the treatment of CRC. We highlight the multifunctional nature of polysaccharides, showcasing their potential as standalone drug carriers or as integral components of intelligent robotic devices for biomedical therapeutic applications. In addition to exploring the opportunities for using carbohydrate polymers in CRC treatment, we address the challenges and failures that may limit their applicability in biomedical research, as well as summarize the recent preclinical and clinical trials, resulting in several commercialization attempts. This comprehensive overview critically summarizes the potential of polysaccharide-based biomaterials in CRC treatment.

Dual pH/redox-responsive size-switchable polymeric nano-carrier system for tumor microenvironment DTX release

Innovation chemotherapeutic nano drug delivery systems (NDDSs) with various pharmacological achievement have become one of the hopeful therapeutic strategies in cancer therapy. This study focused on low pH, and high levels of glutathione (GSH) as two prominent characteristics of the tumor microenvironment (TME) to design a novel TME-targeted pH/redox dual-responsive P (AMA-co-DMAEMA)-b-PCL-SS-PCL-b-P (AMA-co-DMAEMA) nanoparticles (NPs) for deep tumor penetration and targeted anti-tumor therapy. The positively charged NPs exhibit strong electrostatic interactions with negatively charged cell membranes, significantly enhancing cellular uptake. Moreover, these NPs possess the unique size-shrinkable property, transitioning from 98.24 ± 27.78 to 45.56 ± 20.62 nm within the TME. This remarkable size change fosters an impressive uptake of approximately 100% by MDA-MB-231 cells within just 30 min, thereby greatly improving drug delivery efficiency. This size switchability enables passive targeting through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, facilitating deep penetration into tumors. The NPs also demonstrate improved pH/redox-triggered drug release (∼70% at 24 h) within the TME and exhibit no toxicity in cell viability test. The cell cycle results of treated cells with docetaxel (DTX)-loaded NPs revealed G2/M (84.6 ± 1.16%) arrest. The DTX-loaded NPs showed more apoptosis (62.6 ± 3.7%) than the free DTX (51.8 ± 3.2%) in treated cells. The western blot and RT-PCR assays revealed that apoptotic genes and proteins expression of treated cells were significantly upregulated with the DTX-loaded NPs vs. the free DTX (Pvalue<.001). In conclusion, these findings suggest that this novel-engineered NPs holds promise as a TME-targeted NDDS.

Lipid- and polymer-based formulations containing TNF-α inhibitors for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases

Monoclonal antibodies inhibiting tumor necrosis factor-alpha (iTNF-α) have revolutionized the therapeutic regimen of inflammatory bowel disease, but their main drawback is the parenteral route of administration they require. An alternative approach lies in the delivery of these molecules to the area involved in the inflammatory process by means of innovative formulations able to promote their localization in affected tissues while also decreasing the number of administrations required. This review describes the advantages deriving from the use of lipid- and polymer-based systems containing iTNF-α, focusing on their physicochemical and technological properties and discussing the preclinical results obtained in vivo using rodent models of colitis.

Nanoparticle delivery systems of functional substances for precision nutrition

Foodborne functional substances have received much attention for their functional benefits in health and disease. However, these substances are easily affected by the adverse environment during production, transportation, or storage. They will also be damaged by the gastric environment and limited by the mucosal barrier after entering the human body, thus affecting the bioavailability of functional substances in the body. The construction of nanoparticle delivery systems is helpful to protect the biological activity of functional substances and improve their solubility, stability, and absorption of substances. Responsive delivery systems help control the release of functional substances in specific environments and targeted sites to achieve nutritional intervention, disease prevention, and treatment. In this chapter, the main types of foodborne functional substances and their commonly used delivery systems were reviewed, and the application of delivery systems in precision nutrition was described from the aspects of environmental stimuli-responsive delivery systems, site-specific delivery systems, and disease-targeted delivery systems.

Enhanced bioavailability of curcumin amorphous nanocomposite prepared by a green process using modified starch

Curcumin (Cur), a bioactive compound extracted from plants, has attracted widespread attention due to its multiple pharmacological activities. However, the low bioavailability due to the inherent limitations in water solubility, chemical stability, and permeability poses great challenges for realizing its clinical potentials. In the current study, octenyl succinic anhydride-modified starch (OSA-S), a renewable and biodegradable biopolymer, was employed to fabricate Cur amorphous composite nanoparticles (Cur/OSA-S NPs) through a solvent-free pH-driven method with the aim to enhance Cur's bioavailability by improving its solubility and stability. Cur/OSA-S NPs, with mean sizes of about 128.9 ± 8.6 nm, encapsulation efficiencies of about 90.0 %, and the drug loading capacities around 51.0 ± 0.2 %, were successfully prepared. Cur was found to be dispersed within the composite nanoparticles in amorphous state as confirmed by the XRD and DSC characterizations. In addition, Cur/OSA-S NPs offers excellent storage, thermal and light stability, excellent re-dispersibility, and approximately 92 times better solubility than the original Cur. Furthermore, studies of dissolution and the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) confirmed enhanced dissolution rates and in vitro permeabilities of Cur/OSA-S NPs. Cancer cell viability and uptake experiments revealed that Cur/OSA-S NPs possessed more potent inhibitory effects on cancer cell proliferation compared to the raw Cur. The results obtained from the current study demonstrated the effectiveness of OSA-S for manufacturing Cur amorphous composite nanoparticles with enhanced solubility, stability, and permeability, which might be valuable for further development of Cur based products for treatment of various diseases.

Fabrication and characterization of shellac nanofibers with colon-targeted delivery of quercetin and its anticancer activity

In this study, the feasibility of shellac nanofibers as carrier system for colonic delivery of quercetin was evaluated. Firstly, the nanofibers without and with different amounts (2.5 %, 5.0 %, and 7.5 %) of quercetin were fabricated using pure shellac as a carrier by electrospinning. The morphology of nanofibers was bead-shape confirmed by SEM. FTIR, XRD, and DSC analysis showed that quercetin was encapsulated into shellac nanofibers, forming an amorphous complex. The molecular docking simulation indicated quercetin bound well to shellac through hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces. These nanofibers had higher thermal stability than pure quercetin, and their surface wettability exhibited a pH-responsive behavior. The loading capacity of quercetin varied from 2.25 % to 6.84 % with the increased amount of quercetin, and it affected the stability of nanofibers in food simulants by measuring the release profiles of quercetin. The shellac nanofibers had high gastrointestinal stability, with a minimum quercetin release of 16.87 % in simulated digestive fluids, while the remaining quercetin was delivered to the colon and was released gradually. Moreover, the nanofibers exerted enhanced anticancer activity against HCT-116 cells by arresting cell cycle in G0/G1 phase and inducing cell apoptosis. Overall, shellac nanofibers are promising materials for colon-targeted delivery of active compounds.

Cytotoxicity Enhancement in Osteosarcoma with Multifunctional I-131 Radiotherapeutic Nanoparticles: In Vitro Three-Dimensional Spheroid Model and Release Kinetics Modeling

This novel radiolabeled chitosan nanoparticle, facilitated with curcumin, increased doxorubicin cytotoxicity and radiosensitivity to MG-63 osteosarcoma cells in a three-dimensional model. Delivery of the anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) targeted carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles, directly labeled with Na131I (ICED-N), achieved deep tumor penetration in a three-dimensional model. Of three kinetic models, the Higuchi model more closely matched the experimental curve and release profiles. The anti-EGFR targeting resulted in a 513-fold greater targeting efficacy to MG-63 (EGFR+) cells than the control fibroblast (EGFR-) cells. The curcumin-enhanced ICED-N (4 × 0.925 MBq) fractionated-dose regime achieved an 18.3-fold increase in cell cytotoxicity compared to the single-dose (1 × 3.70 MBq) doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticle, and a 13.6-fold increase in cell cytotoxicity compared to the single-dose Na131I nanoparticle. Moreover, the ICED-N fractionated dose increased cells in the G2/M phase 8.78-fold, indicating the cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase is associated with DNA fragmentation, and the intracellular damage is unable to be repaired. Overall, the results indicate that the fractionated dose was more efficacious than a single dose, and curcumin substantially increased doxorubicin cytotoxicity and amplified osteosarcoma cell radiosensitivity to Na131I.

Organic and Biogenic Nanocarriers as Bio-Friendly Systems for Bioactive Compounds' Delivery: State-of-the Art and Challenges

"Green" strategies to build up novel organic nanocarriers with bioperformance are modern trends in nanotechnology. In this way, the valorization of bio-wastes and the use of living systems to develop multifunctional organic and biogenic nanocarriers (OBNs) have revolutionized the nanotechnological and biomedical fields. This paper is a comprehensive review related to OBNs for bioactives' delivery, providing an overview of the reports on the past two decades. In the first part, several classes of bioactive compounds and their therapeutic role are briefly presented. A broad section is dedicated to the main categories of organic and biogenic nanocarriers. The major challenges regarding the eco-design and the fate of OBNs are suggested to overcome some toxicity-related drawbacks. Future directions and opportunities, and finding "green" solutions for solving the problems related to nanocarriers, are outlined in the final of this paper. We believe that through this review, we will capture the attention of the readers and will open new perspectives for new solutions/ideas for the discovery of more efficient and "green" ways in developing novel bioperformant nanocarriers for transporting bioactive agents.

The Anti-Oxidant Curcumin Solubilized as Oil-in-Water Nanoemulsions or Chitosan Nanocapsules Effectively Reduces Helicobacter pylori Growth, Bacterial Biofilm Formation, Gastric Cell Adhesion and Internalization

The bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) represents a major risk factor associated with the development of gastric cancer. The anti-oxidant curcumin has been ascribed many benefits to human health, including bactericidal effects. However, these effects are poorly reproducible because the molecule is extremely unstable and water insoluble. Here we solubilized curcumin as either nanoemulsions or chitosan nanocapsules and tested the effects on H. pylori. The nanoemulsions were on average 200 nm in diameter with a PdI ≤ 0.16 and a negative zeta potential (-54 mV), while the nanocapsules were 305 nm in diameter with a PdI ≤ 0.29 and a positive zeta potential (+68 mV). Nanocapsules were safer than nanoemulsions when testing effects on the viability of GES-1 gastric cells. Also, nanocapsules were more efficient than nanoemulsions at inhibiting H. pylori growth (minimal inhibitory concentration: 50 and 75 μM, respectively), whereby chitosan contributed to this activity. Importantly, both formulations effectively diminished H. pylori's adherence to and internalization by GES-1 cells, as well as biofilm formation. In summary, the demonstrated activity of the curcumin nanoformulations described here against H. pylori posit them as having great potential to treat or complement other therapies currently in use against H. pylori infection.

Wound healing performance of electrospun PVA/70S30C bioactive glass/Ag nanoparticles mats decorated with curcumin: In vitro and in vivo investigations

Biocompatible fibrous scaffold containing polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 70S30C bioactive glass (BG), silver (Ag) nanoparticles and curcumin (Cur) was fabricated through electrospinning method. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) were employed to investigate the morphological characteristics of the scaffolds. In addition, biodegradability, hydrophilicity, and contact angle were studied as criteria for evaluating physical properties of the scaffolds. Tensile strength was reported to be 0.971 ± 0.093 MPa. Also, the viability of fibroblasts after 7 days of cell culture was 93.58 ± 1.36 %. The antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria was illustrated using inhibition zones of 13.12 ± 0.69 and 14.21 ± 1.37 mm, respectively. Histological results revealed that tissue regeneration after 14 days of surgery was much higher for the dressing group compared to the blank group. According to the obtained results, the authors introduce the PVA-BG-Ag-Cur scaffold as a promising candidate for skin tissue engineering applications.

Stimuli-responsive (nano)architectures for phytochemical delivery in cancer therapy

The use of phytochemicals for purpose of cancer therapy has been accelerated due to resistance of tumor cells to conventional chemotherapy drugs and therefore, monotherapy does not cause significant improvement in the prognosis and survival of patients. Therefore, administration of natural products alone or in combination with chemotherapy drugs due to various mechanisms of action has been suggested. However, cancer therapy using phytochemicals requires more attention because of poor bioavailability of compounds and lack of specific accumulation at tumor site. Hence, nanocarriers for specific delivery of phytochemicals in tumor therapy has been suggested. The pharmacokinetic profile of natural products and their therapeutic indices can be improved. The nanocarriers can improve potential of natural products in crossing over BBB and also, promote internalization in cancer cells through endocytosis. Moreover, (nano)platforms can deliver both natural and synthetic anti-cancer drugs in combination cancer therapy. The surface functionalization of nanostructures with ligands improves ability in internalization in tumor cells and improving cytotoxicity of natural compounds. Interestingly, stimuli-responsive nanostructures that respond to endogenous and exogenous stimuli have been employed for delivery of natural compounds in cancer therapy. The decrease in pH in tumor microenvironment causes degradation of bonds in nanostructures to release cargo and when changes in GSH levels occur, it also mediates drug release from nanocarriers. Moreover, enzymes in the tumor microenvironment such as MMP-2 can mediate drug release from nanocarriers and more progresses in targeted drug delivery obtained by application of nanoparticles that are responsive to exogenous stimulus including light.

Curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles alleviate fenpropathrin-induced hepatotoxicity by regulating lipogenesis and pyroptosis in rats

In this study, the probable alleviative role of curcumin (CMN) (50 mg/kg b.wt) or curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticle (CLC-NP) (50 mg/kg b.wt) was assessed against the hepatotoxic effect of a widely used pyrethroid insecticide, fenpropathrin (FEN) (15 mg/kg b.wt) in rats in a 60-day experiment. The results revealed that CMN and CLC-NP significantly suppressed the FEN-induced increment in serum hepatic enzyme activities (ALT, AST, and ALP) and hyperbilirubinemia. Moreover, FEN-associated dyslipidemia, hepatic oxidative stress, and altered hepatic histology were significantly rescued by CMN and CLC-NP. Furthermore, the increased TNF-α and Caspase-3 immunoexpression in hepatic tissues of FEN-exposed rats was significantly reduced in CMN and CLC-NP-treated ones. FEN exposure significantly upregulated the pyroptosis-related genes, including GSDMD, Casp-1, Casp-3, Casp-8, IL-18, TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-κB and altered the expression of lipogenesis-related genes including SREBP-1c, PPAR-α, MCP1, and FAS in the hepatic tissues. Nevertheless, the earlier disturbances in gene expression were corrected in CMN and CLC-NP-treated groups. Of note, compared to CMN, CLC-NP was more effective at inhibiting oxidative damage and controlling lipogenesis and pyroptosis in the hepatic tissues of FEN-exposed rats. Conclusively, the current study findings proved the superior and useful role of CLC-NP in combating pollutants associated with hepatic dysfunction.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of fisetin-loaded nanoparticles in an in vitro model of osteoarthritis

Cartilage lesions, especially osteoarthritis (OA), are a common health problem, causing pain and disability in various age groups, principally in older adults and athletes. One of the main challenges to be considered in cartilage tissue repair is the regeneration of cartilage tissue in an active inflammatory environment. Fisetin has various biological effects including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, apoptotic, and antiproliferative activities. The only disadvantages of fisetin in the pharmaceutical field are its instability and low solubility in aqueous media. This study is aimed at preparing chitosan (CS)-based nanoparticles to yield fisetin with improved bioavailability features. Then, the effect of fisetin-loaded nanoparticles (FNPs) on inflammatory responses in interleukin-1β (IL-1β) pretreated human chondrocytes has also been investigated. FNPs presented an average size of 363.1 ± 17.2 nm and a zeta potential of + 17.7 ± 0.1 mV with encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of 78.79 ± 7.7% and 37.46 ± 6.6%, respectively. The viability of human chondrocytes was not affected by blank nanoparticles (BNPs) up to a concentration of 2000 μg/mL. In addition, the hemolysis results clearly showed that FNPs did not damage the red blood cells (RBCs) and had good hemocompatibility within the range investigated. FNPs, similar to fisetin, were able to inhibit the inflammatory responses induced by IL-1β such as the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) while increasing the production of an anti-inflammatory cytokine such as interleukin-10 (IL-10). Overall, the in vitro evaluation results of the anti-inflammatory activity showed that FNPs can serve as delivery systems to transfer fisetin to treat inflammation in OA.

Comparable bio-evaluation of curcumin and chitosan-encapsulated curcumin nanoparticles against the reprotoxic potential of fenpropathrin pyrethroid in rats: Genomic and morphometric prospectives

This study delves into the intricate exploration of potential toxic effects resulting from subchronic exposure to fenpropathrin (FNP) on the reproductive system of male SD rats. Adding to the novelty, our study undertakes a pioneering comparison of the effects of curcumin (CUR) and curcumin-encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles (CS.CUR.NPs) on these toxic effects. The study involved a cohort of sixty male SD rats (six groups): vehicle control, CUR, Cs.CUR.NPs, FNP, and two combination groups (FNP with CUR or Cs.CUR.NPs). The synthesized Cs.CUR.NPs nanoparticles underwent meticulous characterization using Fourier Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The findings revealed that FNP caused oxidative stress, sperm abnormalities, reduced motility and sperm count FNP decreased serum LH, FSH, 17-β estradiol, and testosterone levels. FNP downregulated the mRNA expression of the spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis-related genes, While, downregulated hypothalamic KISS-1 and KISS-1r expression. Histopathological alterations were assessed and scored. Surprisingly, the treatment with CUR and Cs.CUR.NPs exhibited remarkable restorative effects on semen quality, sex hormone levels, antioxidant capacity, and mRNA expression of the targeted genes. Notably, Cs.CUR.NPs displayed superior properties when compared to CUR. Nevertheless, further research is imperative to evaluate their efficacy across various bodily tissues.

Magnetically Enhanced Intracellular Uptake of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Antitumor Therapy

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have been widely employed in biomedical fields, including targeted delivery of antitumor therapy. Conventional magnetic tumor targeting has used simple static magnetic fields (SMFs), which cause SPIONs to linearly aggregate into a long chain-like shape. Such agglomeration greatly hinders the intracellular targeting of SPIONs into tumors, thus reducing the therapeutic efficacy. In this study, we investigated the enhancement of the intracellular uptake of SPIONs through the application of rotating magnetic fields (RMFs). Based on the physical principles of SPION chain disassembly, we investigated physical parameters to predict the chain length favorable for intracellular uptake. Our prediction was validated by clear visualization of the intracellular distributions of SPIONs in tumor cells at both cellular and three-dimensional microtissue levels. To identify the potential therapeutic effects of enhanced intracellular uptake, magnetic hyperthermia as antitumor therapy was investigated under varying conditions of magnetic hyperthermia and RMFs. The results showed that enhanced intracellular uptake reduced magnetic hyperthermia time and strength as well as particle concentration. The proposed method will be useful in the development of techniques to determine the optimized physical conditions for the enhanced intracellular uptake of SPIONs in antitumor therapy.

Lactoferrin-Based Ternary Composite Nanoparticles with Enhanced Dispersibility and Stability for Curcumin Delivery

Curcumin has been reported to exhibit free radical antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, which are beneficial for nutraceutical applications. However, its application for this purpose is limited by its poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability. These problems can be overcome using food-grade colloidal particles that encapsulate, protect, and deliver curcumin. These colloidal particles can be assembled from structure-forming food components that may also exhibit protective effects, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. In this study, lactoferrin (LF), (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and hyaluronic acid (HA) were used to fabricate composite nanoparticles using a simple pH-shift method. We showed that curcumin could be successfully loaded into these LF-EGCG-HA nanoparticles (d = 145 nm). The encapsulation efficiency (86%) and loading capacity (5.8%) of curcumin within these nanoparticles were relatively high. Encapsulation improved the thermal, light, and storage stabilities of the curcumin. Moreover, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles exhibited good redispersibility after dehydration. The in vitro digestion properties, cellular uptake, and anticancer effects of the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles were then explored. Compared to free curcumin, the bioaccessibility and cellular uptake of the curcumin were significantly improved after encapsulation in the nanoparticles. Furthermore, the nanoparticles significantly promoted the apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells. This study suggests that food-grade biopolymer nanoparticles can be used to improve the bioavailability and bioactivity of an important nutraceutical.

Studies on anti-colon cancer potential of nanoformulations of curcumin and succinylated curcumin in mannosylated chitosan

Colon cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of death and the third most diagnosed cancer worldwide. Although curcumin (CUR) has demonstrated a potent anticancer activity, it is characterized by its poor solubility, low bioavailability, and instability. This study is a projection from a previous investigation where CUR and succinylated CUR (CUR.SA) were separately encapsulated in mannosylated-chitosan nanoparticles (CM-NPs) to form CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs, respectively. Here, we aim to assess the anti-CRC activity of these two nanoformulations. Cytotoxicity studies using CCK-8 assay indicated that both CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs have a dose and time-dependent toxicity towards CRC human cell-lines (HCT116 and SW480), and more cytotoxic compared to free CUR or CUR-SA in a time-dependent manner. A significant induction of early and late apoptosis in the CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs treated CRC cell lines compared to untreated cells was observed. Western blotting analyses confirmed the induction of apoptosis through activation of Caspase signaling compared to untreated cells. Based on the physicochemical properties of CUR-NPs and CUR.SA-NPs along with the data from the in vitro studies, we may conclude these nanoparticle formulations hold very promising attributes, worthy of further investigations for its role in the management of CRC.

Advancement in Therapeutic Intervention of Prebiotic-Based Nanoparticles for Colonic Diseases

Intestinal flora has become a therapeutic target for the intervention of colonic diseases (CDs) with better understanding of the interplay between microbiota and CDs. Depending on unique properties and prominent ability of regulating the intestinal flora, prebiotics can not only achieve a colon-specific drug delivery but also maintain the intestinal homeostasis, thus playing a positive role in the intervention of CDs. Currently, different studies on prebiotic-based nanoparticles have been contrived for colonic drug delivery and have shown great potential in curing various CDs, such as colitis and colorectal cancer. Nevertheless, there is a lack of systematic survey on the use of prebiotic nanoparticles for the treatment of CDs. This review aims to generalize the state-of-the-art of prebiotic nanomedicines specific for CDs. The species and function of intestinal flora and various kinds of prebiotics available as well as their regulating effects on intestinal flora were expounded. A variety of prebiotic nanoparticles pertinent to colon-targeted drug delivery systems were illustrated with particular emphasis on their curative activities on CDs. The efficacy and safety of prebiotic-based colonic drug delivery systems (p-CDDs) were also analyzed. In conclusion, the synergy between prebiotic nanoparticles and their cargos may hold promise for the treatment and intervention of CDs.

Fabrication and assessment of potent anticancer nanoconjugates from chitosan nanoparticles, curcumin, and eugenol

In cancer management and control, the most challenging difficulties are the complications resulting from customized therapies. The constitution of bioactive anticancer nanoconjugates from natural derivatives, e.g., chitosan (Ct), curcumin (Cur), and eugenol (Eug), was investigated for potential alternatives to cancer cells' treatment. Ct was extracted from Erugosquilla massavensis (mantis shrimp); then, Ct nanoparticles (NCt) was fabricated and loaded with Cur and/or Eug using crosslinking emulsion/ionic-gelation protocol and evaluated as anticancer composites against CaCo2 "colorectal adenocarcinoma" and MCF7 "breast adenocarcinoma" cells. Ct had 42.6 kDa molecular weight and 90.7% deacetylation percentage. The conjugation of fabricated molecules/composites and their interactions were validated via infrared analysis. The generated nanoparticles (NCt, NCt/Cur, NCt/Eug, and NCt/Cur/Eug composites) had mean particle size diameters of 268.5, 314.9, 296.4, and 364.7 nm, respectively; the entire nanoparticles carried positive charges nearby ≥30 mV. The scanning imaging of synthesized nanoconjugates (NCt/Cur, NCt/Eug, and NCt/Cur/Eug) emphasized their homogenous distributions and spherical shapes. The cytotoxic assessments of composited nanoconjugates using the MTT assay, toward CaCo2 and MCF7 cells, revealed elevated anti-proliferative and dose-dependent activities of all nanocomposites against treated cells. The combined nanocomposites (NCt/Eug/Cur) emphasized the highest activity against CaCo2 cells (IC₅₀ = 11.13 μg/ml), followed by Cur/Eug then NCt/Cur. The exposure of CaCo2 cells to the nanocomposites exhibited serious DNA damages and fragmentation in exposed cancerous cells using the comet assay; the NCt/Eug/Cur nanocomposite was the most forceful with 9.54 nm tail length and 77.94 tail moment. The anticancer effectuality of innovatively combined NCt/Cur/Eug nanocomposites is greatly recommended for such biosafe, natural, biocompatible, and powerful anticancer materials, especially for combating colorectal adenocarcinoma cells, with elevated applicability, efficiency, and biosafety.

Shellac Micelles Loaded with Curcumin Using a pH Cycle to Improve Dispersibility, Bioaccessibility, and Potential for Colon Delivery

Delivery systems smaller than 50 nm are advantageous for cancer prevention. In this study, curcumin was dissolved in shellac micelles following co-dissolving at pH 13.0 and neutralization using glucono-delta-lactone. With 5% w/v shellac and 0.5-5 mg/mL curcumin, the loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency were up to 8.0 and 92.6%, respectively, and the nanocapsules had an average diameter of 20 nm. Differential scanning calorimetry, FTIR spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy results confirmed the encapsulation of curcumin in an amorphous state in shellac micelles. The neutral nanocapsule dispersions maintained the particle dimension and had less than 10% curcumin degradation during 4 week storage at 4 °C. Nanoencapsulating curcumin enhanced in vitro bioavailability and antiproliferation activity against colon cancer cells. After simulated digestions, ∼60% of the nanoencapsulated curcumin was not available for intestinal absorption, nanocapsules retained their structure, and nanoencapsulated curcumin remained active against colon cancer cells, indicating the potential delivery for colorectal cancer prevention.

Curcumin Hybrid Lipid Polymeric Nanoparticles: Antioxidant Activity, Immune Cellular Response, and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

Poor solubility and short biological half-life present a challenge that needs to be overcome in order to improve the recognized bioactivities of curcumin (CUR), the main phenolic compounds derived from the roots of Curcuma longa. However, drug delivery systems have proven to be an excellent strategy to improve and obtain greater bioavailability. Our previous studies on curcuminoid hybrid nanoparticles have shown promising results by significantly increasing the solubility of desmethoxycurcumin (DMC) and bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDM). In this contribution, we performed a detailed characterization of a CUR as well as in vitro and in vivo studies. The developed method produced CUR loaded nanoparticles with an average size of 49.46 ± 0.80. Moreover, the FT-IR analysis confirmed the encapsulation, and TEM images showed their spherical shape. The NP achieved an encapsulation efficiency greater than 99%. Further, the release studies found that the NPs obtained a significantly higher release than the pure compounds in water. In vivo delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) studies showed promising results by enhancing the immune activity response of CUR in NP compared to bulk CUR. Furthermore, we report a significant increase in antioxidant activity for CUR-NP in aqueous solution compared to free CUR. Finally, an important in vitro cytotoxic effect on gastric AGS and colon SW620 adenocarcinoma cell lines was found for CUR-NP while empty carrier nanoparticles are observed to exhibit low cytotoxicity, indicating the potential of these CUR-PLU NPs for further studies to assess their phytotherapeutic applications.

Chitosan-based oral colon-specific delivery systems for polyphenols: recent advances and emerging trends

Oral colon-targeted delivery systems (OCDSs) have attracted great attention in the delivery of active compounds targeted to the colon for the treatment of colon and non-colon diseases with the advantages of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects. Chitosan, the second-most abundant biopolymer next to cellulose, has great biocompatibility, is non-toxic, is sensitive to colonic flora and shows strong adhesion to colonic mucus, making it an ideal biomaterial candidate for the construction of OCDSs. Being rich in functional groups, the chitosan structure is easily modified, both physically and chemically, for the fabrication of delivery systems with diverse geometries, including nanoparticles, microspheres/microparticles, and hydrogels, that are resistant to the harsh environment of the upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT). This review offers a detailed overview of the preparation of chitosan-based delivery systems as the basis for building OCDSs. A variety of natural polyphenols with potent biological activities are used to treat diseases of the colon, or to be metabolized as active ingredients by colonic microorganisms to intervene in remote organ diseases after absorption into the circulation. However, the poor solubility of polyphenols limits their application, and the acidic environment of the upper GIT and various enzymes in the small intestine disrupt their structure and activity. As a result, the development of OCDSs for polyphenols has become an emerging and popular area of current research in the past decade. Thus, the second objective of this review is to systematically summarize the most recent research findings in this area and shed light on the future development of chitosan-based OCDSs for nutritional and biomedical applications.

pH-responsive silica nanoparticles for the treatment of skin wound infections

Chronic wounds are not only a burden for patients but also challenging for clinic treatment due to biofilm formation. Here, we utilized the phenomenon that chronic wounds possess an elevated local pH of 8.9 and developed pH-sensitive silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) to achieve a targeted drug release on alkaline wounds and optimized drug utility. Chlorhexidine (CHX), a disinfectant and antiseptic, was loaded into SiNPs as the model drug. The loaded CHX displayed a release 4 - 5 fold higher at pH 8.0 and 8.5 than at pH 6.5, 7.0 and 7.4. CHX-SiNPs furthermore exhibited a distinctive antibacterial activity at pH 8.0 and 8.5 against both Gram-negative and -positive bacterial pathogens, while no cytotoxicity was found according to cell viability analysis. The CHX-SiNPs were further formulated into alginate hydrogels to allow ease of use. The antibacterial efficacy of CHX-SiNPs was then studied with artificial wounds on ex vivo human skin. Treatment with CHX-SiNPs enabled nearly a 4-lg reduction of the viable bacterial cells, and the alginate formulated CHX-SiNPs led to almost a 3-lg reduction compared to the negative controls. The obtained results demonstrated that CHX-SiNPs are capable of efficient pH-triggered drug release, leading to high antibacterial efficacy. Moreover, CHX-SiNPs enlighten clinic potential towards the treatment of chronic wound infections. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: A platform for controlled drug release at a relatively high pH value i.e., over 8, was established by tuning the physical structures of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs). Incorporation of chlorhexidine, an antimicrobial agent, into the fabricated SiNPs allowed a distinctive inhibition of bacterial growth at alkaline pHs, but not at acidic pHs. The efficacy of the SiNPs loaded with chlorhexidine in treating wound infections was further validated by utilizing ex vivo human skin samples. The presented work demonstrates clinic potential of employing alkaline pH as a non-invasive stimulus to achieve on-demand delivery of antimicrobials through SiNPs, showcasing a valuable approach to treating bacterial infections on chronic wounds.

Scalable Manufacture of Curcumin-Loaded Chitosan Nanocomplex for pH-Responsive Delivery by Coordination-Driven Flash Nanocomplexation

Metal coordination-driven nanocomplexes are known to be responsive to physiologically relevant stimuli such as pH, redox, temperature or light, making them well-suited for antitumor drug delivery. The ever-growing demand for such nanocomplexes necessitates the design of a scalable approach for their production. In this study, we demonstrate a novel coordination self-assembly strategy, termed flash nanocomplexation (FNC), which is rapid and efficient for the fabrication of drug-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) in a continuous manner. Based on this strategy, biocompatible chitosan (CS) and Cu2+ can be regarded anchors to moor the antitumor drug (curcumin, Cur) through coordination, resulting in curcumin-loaded chitosan nanocomplex (Cur-loaded CS nanocomplex) with a narrow size distribution (PDI < 0.124) and high drug loading (up to 41.75%). Owing to the excellent stability of Cur-loaded CS nanocomplex at neutral conditions (>50 days), premature Cur leakage was limited to lower than 1.5%, and pH-responsive drug release behavior was realized in acidic tumor microenvironments. An upscaled manufacture of Cur-loaded CS nanocomplex is demonstrated with continuous FNC, which shows an unprecedented method toward practical applications of nanomedicine for tumor therapy. Furthermore, intracellular uptake study and cytotoxicity experiments toward H1299 cells demonstrates the satisfied anticancer efficacy of the Cur-loaded CS nanocomplex. These results confirm that coordination-driven FNC is an effective method that enables the rapid and scalable fabrication of antitumor drugs.

Polysaccharide-Drug Conjugates: A Tool for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the most widespread deadly diseases, following cardiovascular disease, worldwide. Chemotherapy is widely used in combination with surgery, hormone and radiation therapy to treat various cancers. However, chemotherapeutic drugs can cause severe side effects due to non-specific targeting, poor bioavailability, low therapeutic indices, and high dose requirements. Several drug carriers successfully overcome these issues and deliver drugs to the desired sites, reducing the side effects. Among various drug delivery systems, polysaccharide-based carriers that target only the cancer cells have been developed to overcome the toxicity of chemotherapeutics. Polysaccharides are non-toxic, biodegradable, hydrophilic biopolymers that can be easily modified chemically to improve the bioavailability and stability for delivering therapeutics into cancer tissues. Different polysaccharides, such as chitosan, alginates, cyclodextrin, pullulan, hyaluronic acid, dextran, guar gum, pectin, and cellulose, have been used in anti-cancer drug delivery systems. This review highlights the recent progress made in polysaccharides-based drug carriers in anti-cancer therapy.

Prospects of Curcumin Nanoformulations in Cancer Management

There is increasing interest in the use of natural compounds with beneficial pharmacological effects for managing diseases. Curcumin (CUR) is a phytochemical that is reportedly effective against some cancers through its ability to regulate signaling pathways and protein expression in cancer development and progression. Unfortunately, its use is limited due to its hydrophobicity, low bioavailability, chemical instability, photodegradation, and fast metabolism. Nanoparticles (NPs) are drug delivery systems that can increase the bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs and improve drug targeting to cancer cells via different mechanisms and formulation techniques. In this review, we have discussed various CUR-NPs that have been evaluated for their potential use in treating cancers. Formulations reviewed include lipid, gold, zinc oxide, magnetic, polymeric, and silica NPs, as well as micelles, dendrimers, nanogels, cyclodextrin complexes, and liposomes, with an emphasis on their formulation and characteristics. CUR incorporation into the NPs enhanced its pharmaceutical and therapeutic significance with respect to solubility, absorption, bioavailability, stability, plasma half-life, targeted delivery, and anticancer effect. Our review shows that several CUR-NPs have promising anticancer activity; however, clinical reports on them are limited. We believe that clinical trials must be conducted on CUR-NPs to ensure their effective translation into clinical applications.

Cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) and colon cancer (SW480) cell lines exposed to nanoscale zeolitic imidazolate framework 8 (ZIF-8)

Zinc (zeolitic) imidazolate framework 8 (ZIF-8) has been widely considered in the literature as an ideal candidate for drug delivery especially anti-cancer drugs. However, the available information on the biocompatibility and cytotoxicity of ZIF-8 nanoparticles is contradictory. Therefore, in the present study, the ZIF-8 particles were synthetized, characterized, and their potential toxicity on two eukaryotic cell lines including human embryonic kidney (HEK293) and human colon cancer (SW480) cells was investigated in vitro. The characterization of ZIF-8 particles by TEM, EDX, SEM, and DLS indicated the synthesis of the hexagonal crystals with mean diameter of 124.71±32.74 nm and the presence of the zinc element at 86.25% by weight (wt%) of the ZIF-8 structure. The results of the cytotoxicity assessment of ZIF-8 NPs showed that the viability of two different cell lines reduced significantly coincident with increasing exposure concentration from 0 to 500 μg mL^-1 (P<0.05). The 24-h half-inhibitory concentration (IC50-24 h) values of ZIF-8 NPs for HEK293 and SW480 cell lines were 116.22 and 36.23 μg mL^-1, respectively. We found that the viability of SW480 cells was significantly lower than the HEK293 cells in all exposure concentrations of ZIF-8 NPs except control. Exposure of both cells resulted in increasing of the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and activation of apoptosis pathway. The apoptosis rate of cancer SW480 cells was higher than the normal HEK293 cells. These findings indicate that synthetized ZIF-8 NPs could be a candidate for cancer therapy, although their toxic effects on the normal cells also should be considered.

Is Curcumin at the Threshold of Therapeutic Effectiveness on Patients with Colon Cancer?-A Systematic Review

Curcumin, obtained from curcuma longa, has been the subject of decades of scientific investigation on its therapeutic usefulness. It is reported to possess several therapeutic properties, of which anti-colon cancer is of interest in this review. Clinically however, curcumin has yet to firm up its place among established anti-colon cancer therapeutic contenders. We aimed to systematically review prevailing clinical evidence on the role of curcumin in colon cancer treatment. The review drawing from literature on clinical studies indicates fairly long term tolerability. No regression of tumor was reported when curcumin was the sole intervention. Increase in p53 level expression was reported in a placebo controlled study but no reduction in PGE2 or 5HETE. Pharmacokinetic data on healthy humans indicate that formulated curcumin delivery systems present significantly higher systemic bioavailability. It appears therefore that the clinical use of curcumin can potentially be realized only through appropriate formulation interventions. Systematic Review Registration: [website], identifier [registration number].

Effects of curcumin-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles in MDA-MB231 human breast cancer cells

Aim: This study was aimed at evaluating the anticancer potential of curcumin-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) based nanoparticles (NPs) in MDA-MB231 human breast cancer cells. Methods: Curcumin-loaded PLGA NPs were developed using a modified solvent evaporation technique. Physical characterization was performed on the formulated NPs. Furthermore, in vitro experiments were conducted to study the biological activity of the curcumin-loaded NPs. Results: Curcumin-loaded PLGA NPs demonstrated high encapsulation efficiency and sustained payload release. Moreover, the NPs exhibited a significant reduction in cell viability, cell migration and cell invasion in the MDA-MB231 cells. Conclusion: The study revealed that the formulated curcumin-loaded PLGA NPs possessed significant anti-metastatic properties. The findings showcased the possible potential of curcumin-loaded NPs in the management of debilitating conditions such as cancer. In addition, this study could form the basis for further research and advancements in this area.

Is Curcumin the Answer to Future Chemotherapy Cocktail?

The rise in cancer cases in recent years is an alarming situation worldwide. Despite the tremendous research and invention of new cancer therapies, the clinical outcomes are not always reassuring. Cancer cells could develop several evasive mechanisms for their survivability and render therapeutic failure. The continuous use of conventional cancer therapies leads to chemoresistance, and a higher dose of treatment results in even greater toxicities among cancer patients. Therefore, the search for an alternative treatment modality is crucial to break this viscous cycle. This paper explores the suitability of curcumin combination treatment with other cancer therapies to curb cancer growth. We provide a critical insight to the mechanisms of action of curcumin, its role in combination therapy in various cancers, along with the molecular targets involved. Curcumin combination treatments were found to enhance anticancer effects, mediated by the multitargeting of several signalling pathways by curcumin and the co-administered cancer therapies. The preclinical and clinical evidence in curcumin combination therapy is critically analysed, and the future research direction of curcumin combination therapy is discussed.

Inulin-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: A Theranostic Platform for Contrast-Enhanced MR Imaging of Acute Hepatic Failure

The present study introduces a superparamagnetic nanocomposite, Fe-Si-In, as a T2 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent with a core of iron oxide nanoparticles and a nonporous silica inner shell/carboxymethyl inulin outer shell. Due to its core/shell properties, the structure characterization, biocompatibility, and performance in MRI, as well as its potential as a drug delivery system, were thoroughly evaluated. The results have shown that the synthesized nanocomposite possesses excellent biocompatibility and acceptable magnetization (M_s = 20 emu g^-1). It also has the potential to be a nanocarrier for drug delivery purposes, as evidenced by the results of curcumin administration studies. The developed nanocomposite has shown excellent performance in MRI, while the in vitro relaxivity measurements reveal a stronger T2 relaxivity (r₂ = 223.2 ms) compared to the commercial samples available in the market. Furthermore, the in vivo MRI studies demonstrate an excellent contrast between injured livers and normal ones in rats which again upholds the high performance of Fe-Si-In in MRI diagnostics.

Oral delivery of micro/nanoparticulate systems based on natural polysaccharides for intestinal diseases therapy: Challenges, advances and future perspectives

Colon-targeted oral delivery of drugs remains as an appealing and promising approach for the treatment of prevalent intestinal diseases (ID), such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer (CRC). Notwithstanding, there are numerous challenges to effective drug delivery to the colon, which requires the design of advanced strategies. Micro- and nanoparticles have received great attention as colon-targeted delivery platforms due to their reduced size and structural composition that favors the accumulation and/or residence time of drugs at the site of action and/or absorption, contributing to localized therapy. The choice by natural polysaccharides imparts key properties and advantages to the nano-in-microparticulate systems to effective colon-specific oral delivery. This review proposes to discuss the physiological barriers imposed by the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) against oral administration of drugs, as well as pathological factors and challenges of the ID for oral delivery of colon-targeted systems. We then provide an updated progress about polysaccharides-based colon-targeted drug delivery systems, including microparticulate, nanoparticulate and nano-in-microparticulate systems, highlighting their key properties, advantages and limitations to achieving targeted delivery and efficacious therapy within the colon. Lastly, we provide future perspectives, towards advances in the field and clinical translation of colon-targeted oral delivery systems for ID therapy.

Chitosan Nanomedicine in Cancer Therapy: Targeted Delivery and Cellular Uptake

Nanomedicine has gained much attention for the management and treatment of cancers due to the distinctive physicochemical properties of the drug-loaded particles. Chitosan's cationic nature is attractive for the development of such particles for drug delivery, transfection, and controlled release. The particle properties can be improved by modification of the polymer or the particle themselves. The physicochemical properties of chitosan particles are analyzed in 126 recent studies, which allows to highlight their impact on passive and active targeted drug delivery, cellular uptake, and tumor growth inhibition (TGI). From 2012 to 2019, out of 40 in vivo studies, only 4 studies are found reporting a reduction in tumor size by using chitosan particles while all other studies reported tumor growth inhibition relative to controls. A total of 23 studies are analyzed for cellular uptake including 12 studies reporting cellular uptake mechanisms. Understanding and exploiting the processes involved in targeted delivery, endocytosis, and exocytosis by controlling the physicochemical properties of chitosan particles are important for the development of safe and efficient nanomedicine. It is concluded based on the recent literature available on chitosan particles that combination therapies can play a pivotal role in transformation of chitosan nanomedicine from bench to bedside.

Chitosan-based nanocarriers for encapsulation and delivery of curcumin: A review

To overcome the poor aqueous solubility and bioavailability of curcumin, emphasize its functional features, and broaden its applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries, many nanoscale systems have been widely applied for its encapsulation and delivery. Over many decades, chitosan as a natural biopolymer has been extensively studied due to its polycationic nature, biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and non-allergenic. Various chitosan-based nanocarriers with unique properties for curcumin delivery, including but not limited to, self-assembled nanoparticles, nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, nanotubes, and nanofibers, have been designed. This review focuses on the most-recently reported fabrication techniques of different types of chitosan-based nanocarriers. The functionalities of chitosan in each formulation which determine the physicochemical properties such as surface charge, morphology, encapsulation driving force, and release profile, were discussed in detail. Moreover, the current pharmaceutical applications of curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were elaborated. The role of chitosan in facilitating the delivery of curcumin and improving the therapeutic effects on many chronic diseases, including cancer, bacterial infection, wound healing, Alzheimer's diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, and hepatitis C virus, were illustrated. Particularly, the recently discovered mechanisms of action of curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles against the abovementioned diseases were highlighted.

PGMD/curcumin nanoparticles for the treatment of breast cancer

The present study aims at developing PGMD (poly-glycerol-malic acid-dodecanedioic acid)/curcumin nanoparticles based formulation for anticancer activity against breast cancer cells. The nanoparticles were prepared using both the variants of PGMD polymer (PGMD 7:3 and PGMD 6:4) with curcumin (i.e. CUR NP 7:3 and CUR NP 6:4). The size of CUR NP 7:3 and CUR NP 6:4 were found to be ~ 110 and 218 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.174 and 0.36, respectively. Further, the zeta potential of the particles was - 18.9 and - 17.5 mV for CUR NP 7:3 and CUR NP 6:4, respectively. The entrapment efficiency of both the nanoparticles was in the range of 75-81%. In vitro anticancer activity and the scratch assay were conducted on breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. The IC50 of the nanoformulations was observed to be 40.2 and 33.6 μM at 48 h for CUR NP 7:3 and CUR NP 6:4, respectively, in MCF-7 cell line; for MDA-MB-231 it was 43.4 and 30.5 μM. Acridine orange/EtBr and DAPI staining assays showed apoptotic features and nuclear anomalies in the treated cells. This was further confirmed by western blot analysis that showed overexpression of caspase 9 indicating curcumin role in apoptosis.

An improved method in fabrication of smart dual-responsive nanogels for controlled release of doxorubicin and curcumin in HT-29 colon cancer cells

The combination therapy which has been proposed as the strategy for the cancer treatment could achieve a synergistic effect for cancer therapies and reduce the dosage of the applied drugs. On account of the the unique properties as the high absorbed water content, biocompatibility, and flexibility, the targeting nanogels have been considred as a suitable platform. Herein, a non-toxic pH/thermo-responsive hydrogel P(NIPAAm-co-DMAEMA) was synthesized and characterized through the free-radical polymerization and expanded upon an easy process for the preparation of the smart responsive nanogels; that is, the nanogels were used for the efficient and controlled delivery of the anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and chemosensitizer curcumin (CUR) simultaneously like a promising strategy for the cancer treatment. The size of the nanogels, which were made, was about 70 nm which is relatively optimal for the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effects. The DOX and CUR co-loaded nanocarriers were prepared by the high encapsulation efficiency (EE). It is important to mention that the controlled drug release behavior of the nanocarriers was also investigated. An enhanced ability of DOX and CUR-loaded nanoformulation to induce the cell apoptosis in the HT-29 colon cancer cells which represented the greater antitumor efficacy than the single-drug formulations or free drugs was resulted through the In vitro cytotoxicity. Overall, according to the data, the simultaneous delivery of the dual drugs through the fabricated nanogels could synergistically potentiate the antitumor effects on the colon cancer (CC).