Anti-inflammatory activity of chitosan nanoparticles carrying NF-κB/p65 antisense oligonucleotide in RAW264.7 macropghage stimulated by lipopolysaccharide

Investigating the effect of rAzurin loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles enwrapped with chitosan-folic acid on breast tumor regression in BALB/C mice

This study aimed to examine how mesoporous silica nanoparticles-chitosan-folic acid impacted the release of recombinant Azurin within the tumor environment. The goal was to trigger apoptosis and stimulate immune responses against both transformed and normal cells in BALB/c mice. The study found that the use of rAzu-MSNs-CS-FA, a specific formulation containing mesoporous silica nanoparticles-chitosan-folic acid, resulted in pH-responsive behavior and slower release of rAzurin compared to other groups. This formulation inhibited MCF7 cells at higher concentrations, induced apoptosis in cells, and caused DNA degradation. It also increased the uptake efficiency of rAzurin and stimulated the secretion of TNF-α, INF-γ, and IL-4 while inhibiting the secretion of IL-6. Furthermore, it regulated the expression of specific genes (upregulating tlr3 and downregulating tlr2, 4, and 9). In animal studies with BALB/c mice, the rAzu-MSNs-CS-FA formulation led to tumor regression and decreased tumor volume over 21 days. Overall, this formulation showed promising results in inducing cytotoxic effects against cancer cells, promoting apoptosis, and eliciting appropriate immune responses, suggesting its potential as a valuable therapy for breast cancer.

Nanolevel Immunomodulators in Sepsis: Novel Roles, Current Perspectives, and Future Directions

Sepsis represents a profound challenge in critical care, characterized by a severe systemic inflammatory response which can lead to multi-organ failure and death. The intricate pathophysiology of sepsis involves an overwhelming immune reaction that disrupts normal host defense mechanisms, necessitating innovative approaches to modulation. Nanoscale immunomodulators, with their precision targeting and controlled release capabilities, have emerged as a potent solution to recalibrate immune responses in sepsis. This review explores the recent advancements in nanotechnology for sepsis management, emphasizing the integration of nanoparticulate systems to modulate immune function and inflammatory pathways. Discussions detail the development of the immune system, the distinct inflammatory responses triggered by sepsis, and the scientific principles underpinning nanoscale immunomodulation, including specific targeting mechanisms and delivery systems. The review highlights nanoformulation designs aimed at enhancing bioavailability, stability, and therapeutic efficacy, which shows promise in clinical settings by modulating key inflammatory pathways. Ultimately, this review synthesizes the current state of knowledge and projects future directions for research, underscoring the transformative potential of nanolevel immunomodulators for sepsis treatment through innovative technologies and therapeutic strategies.

Potential of oligonucleotide- and protein/peptide-based therapeutics in the management of toxicant/stressor-induced diseases

Exposure to toxicants/stressors has been linked to the development of many human diseases. They could affect various cellular components, such as DNA, proteins, lipids, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNA), thereby triggering various cellular pathways, particularly oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and apoptosis, which can contribute to pathophysiological states. Accordingly, modulation of these pathways has been the focus of numerous investigations for managing related diseases. The involvement of various ncRNAs, such as small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNAs (miRNA), and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA), as well as various proteins and peptides in mediating these pathways, provides many target sites for pharmaceutical intervention. In this regard, various oligonucleotide- and protein/peptide-based therapies have been developed to treat toxicity-induced diseases, which have shown promising results in vitro and in vivo. This comprehensive review provides information about various aspects of toxicity-related diseases including their causing factors, main underlying mechanisms and intermediates, and their roles in pathophysiological states. Particularly, it highlights the principles and mechanisms of oligonucleotide- and protein/peptide-based therapies in the treatment of toxicity-related diseases. Furthermore, various issues of oligonucleotides and proteins/peptides for clinical usage and potential solutions are discussed.

Exploring modified chitosan-based gene delivery technologies for therapeutic advancements

One of the critical steps in gene therapy is the successful delivery of the genes. Immunogenicity and toxicity are major issues for viral gene delivery systems. Thus, non-viral vectors are explored. A cationic polysaccharide like chitosan could be used as a nonviral gene delivery vector owing to its significant interaction with negatively charged nucleic acid and biomembrane, providing effective cellular uptake. However, the native chitosan has issues of targetability, unpacking ability, and solubility along with poor buffer capability, hence requiring modifications for effective use in gene delivery. Modified chitosan has shown that the "proton sponge effect" involved in buffering the endosomal pH results in osmotic swelling owing to the accumulation of a greater amount of proton and chloride along with water. The major challenges include limited exploration of chitosan as a gene carrier, the availability of high-purity chitosan for toxicity reduction, and its immunogenicity. The genetic drugs are in their infancy phase and require further exploration for effective delivery of nucleic acid molecules as FDA-approved marketed formulations soon.

A potential strategy against clinical carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae: antimicrobial activity study of sweetener-decorated gold nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) present substantial challenges to clinical intervention, necessitating the formulation of novel antimicrobial strategies to counteract them. Nanomaterials offer a distinctive avenue for eradicating bacteria by employing mechanisms divergent from traditional antibiotic resistance pathways and exhibiting reduced susceptibility to drug resistance development. Non-caloric artificial sweeteners, commonly utilized in the food sector, such as saccharin, sucralose, acesulfame, and aspartame, possess structures amenable to nanomaterial formation. In this investigation, we synthesized gold nanoparticles decorated with non-caloric artificial sweeteners and evaluated their antimicrobial efficacy against clinical CRE strains.

RESULTS

Among these, gold nanoparticles decorated with aspartame (ASP_Au NPs) exhibited the most potent antimicrobial effect, displaying minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 4 to 16 µg/mL. As a result, ASP_Au NPs were chosen for further experimentation. Elucidation of the antimicrobial mechanism unveiled that ASP_Au NPs substantially elevated bacterial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, which dissipated upon ROS scavenger treatment, indicating ROS accumulation within bacteria as the fundamental antimicrobial modality. Furthermore, findings from membrane permeability assessments suggested that ASP_Au NPs may represent a secondary antimicrobial modality via enhancing inner membrane permeability. In addition, experiments involving crystal violet and confocal live/dead staining demonstrated effective suppression of bacterial biofilm formation by ASP_Au NPs. Moreover, ASP_Au NPs demonstrated notable efficacy in the treatment of Galleria mellonella bacterial infection and acute abdominal infection in mice, concurrently mitigating the organism's inflammatory response. Crucially, evaluation of in vivo safety and biocompatibility established that ASP_Au NPs exhibited negligible toxicity at bactericidal concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrated that ASP_Au NPs exhibit promise as innovative antimicrobial agents against clinical CRE.

Chitosan Hydrogel-Delivered ABE8e Corrects PAX9 Mutant in Dental Pulp Stem Cells

Hypodontia (dental agenesis) is a genetic disorder, and it has been identified that the mutation C175T in PAX9 could lead to hypodontia. Cas9 nickase (nCas9)-mediated homology-directed repair (HDR) and base editing were used for the correction of this mutated point. This study aimed to investigate the effect of HDR and the base editor ABE8e in editing PAX9 mutant. It was found that the chitosan hydrogel was efficient in delivering naked DNA into dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). To explore the influence of the C175T mutation in PAX9 on the proliferation of DPSCs, hydrogel was employed to deliver PAX9 mutant vector into DPSCs, finding that the PAX9-containing C175T mutation failed to promote the proliferation of DPSCs. Firstly, DPSCs stably carrying PAX9 mutant were constructed. Either an HDR or ABE8e system was delivered into the above-mentioned stable DPSCs, and then the correction efficiency using Sanger sequencing and Western blotting was determined. Meanwhile, the ABE8e presented significantly higher efficiency in correcting C175T compared with HDR. Furthermore, the corrected PAX9 presented enhanced viability and differentiation capacity for osteogenic and neurogenic lineages; the corrected PAX9 even possessed extremely enhanced transcriptional activation ability. In summary, this study has powerful implications for studies into base editors, chitosan hydrogel, and DPSCs in treating hypodontia.

Fabrication of a curcumin encapsulated bioengineered nano-cocktail formulation for stimuli-responsive targeted therapeutic delivery to enhance anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-bacterial properties in sepsis management

This study aimed to fabricate an eco-friendly functionalized chitosan (CS) nanocarrier to establish a pH-responsive drug delivery system for the treatment of sepsis. Curcumin (Cur) and cerium oxide (CeO₂) were loaded onto an octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA)-functionalized CS nanoformulation (Cur@Ce/OCS) to achieve an effective nanocarrier (NC) for sepsis treatment. The physicochemical characteristics of the developed nanocarriers were determined using various characterization techniques. The developed CeO₂-OCS nanoformulation has been showed effective anti-bacterial activity (∼97%) against G⁺ and G^- bacterial pathogens, and also have improved drug loading (94% ± 2), and encapsulation efficiency (89.8% ± 1.5), with uniform spherical particles having an average diameter of between 100 and 150 nm. The in vivo experimental results establish that Cur-loaded Ce/OCS NPs could have enhanced therapeutic potential against lung infection model by reducing bacterial burden and extensively decreasing inflammatory responses in sepsis model. Additionally, we determined the in vivo biosafety of the nanoformulations by histological observation of different mouse organs (heart, liver, spleen, and kidney), and observed no signs of toxicity in the treatment groups. The findings of this study clearly demonstrate the therapeutic potential of pH-sensitive nanoplatforms in the management of infectious sepsis.

Nanomaterials targeting macrophages in sepsis: A promising approach for sepsis management

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction resulting from dysregulated host responses to infection. Macrophages play significant roles in host against pathogens and the immunopathogenesis of sepsis, such as phagocytosis of pathogens, secretion of cytokines, and phenotype reprogramming. However, the rapid progression of sepsis impairs macrophage function, and conventional antimicrobial and supportive treatment are not sufficient to restore dysregulated macrophages roles. Nanoparticles own unique physicochemical properties, surface functions, localized surface plasmon resonance phenomenon, passive targeting in vivo, good biocompatibility and biodegradability, are accessible for biomedical applications. Once into the body, NPs are recognized by host immune system. Macrophages are phagocytes in innate immunity dedicated to the recognition of foreign substances, including nanoparticles, with which an immune response subsequently occurs. Various design strategies, such as surface functionalization, have been implemented to manipulate the recognition of nanoparticles by monocytes/macrophages, and engulfed by them to regulate their function in sepsis, compensating for the shortcomings of sepsis traditional methods. The review summarizes the mechanism of nanomaterials targeting macrophages and recent advances in nanomedicine targeting macrophages in sepsis, which provides good insight for exploring macrophage-based nano-management in sepsis.

Current Applications of Plant-Based Drug Delivery Nano Systems for Leishmaniasis Treatment

Leishmania is a trypanosomatid that causes leishmaniasis. It is transmitted to vertebrate hosts during the blood meal of phlebotomine sandflies. The clinical manifestations of the disease are associated with several factors, such as the Leishmania species, virulence and pathogenicity, the host-parasite relationship, and the host's immune system. Although its causative agents have been known and studied for decades, there have been few advances in the chemotherapy of leishmaniasis. The urgency of more selective and less toxic alternatives for the treatment of leishmaniasis leads to research focused on the study of new pharmaceuticals, improvement of existing drugs, and new routes of drug administration. Natural resources of plant origin are promising sources of bioactive substances, and the use of ethnopharmacology and folk medicine leads to interest in studying new medications from phytocomplexes. However, the intrinsic low water solubility of plant derivatives is an obstacle to developing a therapeutic product. Nanotechnology could help overcome these obstacles by improving the availability of common substances in water. To contribute to this scenario, this article provides a review of nanocarriers developed for delivering plant-extracted compounds to treat clinical forms of leishmaniasis and critically analyzing them and pointing out the future perspectives for their application.

Advances in Chitosan-Based CRISPR/Cas9 Delivery Systems

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) and the associated Cas endonuclease (Cas9) is a cutting-edge genome-editing technology that specifically targets DNA sequences by using short RNA molecules, helping the endonuclease Cas9 in the repairing of genes responsible for genetic diseases. However, the main issue regarding the application of this technique is the development of an efficient CRISPR/Cas9 delivery system. The consensus relies on the use of non-viral delivery systems represented by nanoparticles (NPs). Chitosan is a safe biopolymer widely used in the generation of NPs for several biomedical applications, especially gene delivery. Indeed, it shows several advantages in the context of gene delivery systems, for instance, the presence of positively charged amino groups on its backbone can establish electrostatic interactions with the negatively charged nucleic acid forming stable nanocomplexes. However, its main limitations include poor solubility in physiological pH and limited buffering ability, which can be overcome by functionalising its chemical structure. This review offers a critical analysis of the different approaches for the generation of chitosan-based CRISPR/Cas9 delivery systems and suggestions for future developments.

Crab (Charybdis natator) exoskeleton derived chitosan nanoparticles for the in vivo delivery of poorly water-soluble drug: Ibuprofen

The study aims to extract and purify chitosan (CS) from the exoskeleton of crab (C. natator) and develop ibuprofen (IBU) encapsulated CS nanoparticles (IBU-CSNPs). Analysis of purified CS revealed characteristic functional and crystallinity peaks. Moreover, morphological analysis of prepared IBU-CSNPs showed uniform spherical shape with a size range of 40-100 nm whereas encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and loading capacity (LC%) were estimated to be 68.94 ± 1.61% and 28 ± 1.18% respectively. Further, in vitro release profile of IBU from IBU-CSNPs was observed to be in biphasic form with initial release up to 15 h followed by the sustained release in different test conditions. Further, the effects of purified CS on the viability of RAW264.7 cells exhibited no toxic effects in higher concentrations. Furthermore, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugated nanoparticles (FITC-IBU-CSNPs) were investigated on in vivo model of adult zebrafish for time-dependent circulation and accumulation of the drug through the nano-carrier system. It was observed that the drug diffusion from the nanoparticles was in a sustained manner throughout the gastrointestinal region which resulted in suppression of inflammation. Overall, this study provides an effective and facile process for preparing a crab CS-based nano-carrier system used for the delivery of IBU in vivo which may help in the curing of prolonged chronic inflammatory diseases. Moreover, it may also help to reduce adverse effects of these drugs in the gastrointestinal tract such as ulcers and bleeding.

Modification of Proliferation and Apoptosis in Breast Cancer Cells by Exposure of Antioxidant Nanoparticles Due to Modulation of the Cellular Redox State Induced by Doxorubicin Exposure

In this report, we investigated whether the use of chitosan-carrying-glutathione nanoparticles (CH-GSH NPs) can modify proliferation and apoptosis, and reduce cell damage induced by doxorubicin on breast cancer cells. Doxorubicin is a widely used antineoplasic agent for the treatment of various types of cancer. However, it is also a highly toxic drug because it induces oxidative stress. Thus, the use of antioxidant molecules has been considered to reduce the toxicity of doxorubicin. CH-GSH NPs were characterized in size, zeta potential, concentration, and shape. When breast cancer cells were treated with CH-GSH nanoparticles, they were localized in the cellular cytoplasm. Combined doxorubicin exposure with nanoparticles increased intracellular GSH levels. At the same time, decreasing levels of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde were observed and modified antioxidant enzyme activity. Levels of the Ki67 protein were evaluated as a marker of cell proliferation and the activity of the Casp-3 protein related to cell apoptosis was measured. Our data suggests that CH-GSH NPs can modify cell proliferation by decreasing Ki67 levels, induce apoptosis by increasing caspase-3 activity, and reduce the oxidative stress induced by doxorubicin in breast cancer cells by modulating molecules associated with the cellular redox state. CH-GSH NPs could be used to reduce the toxic effects of this antineoplastic. Considering these results, CH-GSH NPs represent a novel delivery system offering new opportunities in pharmacy, material science, and biomedicine.

The Influence of Polysaccharides-Based Material on Macrophage Phenotypes

Macrophage polarization is a key factor in determining the success of implanted tissue engineering scaffolds. Polysaccharides (derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms) are known to modulate macrophage phenotypes by recognizing cell membrane receptors. Numerous studies have developed polysaccharide-based materials into functional biomaterial substrates for tissue regeneration and pharmaceutical application due to their immunostimulatory activities and anti-inflammatory response. They are used as hydrogel substrates, surface coatings, and drug delivery carriers. In addition to their innate immunological functions, the newly endowed physical and chemical properties, including substrate modulus, pore size/porosity, surface binding chemistry, and the mole ratio of polysaccharides in hybrid materials may regulate macrophage phenotypes more precisely. Growing evidence indicates that the sulfation pattern of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans expressed on polarized macrophages leads to the changes in protein binding, which may alter macrophage phenotype and influence the immune response. A comprehensive understanding of how different types of polysaccharide-based materials alter macrophage phenotypic changes can be beneficial to predict transplantation/implantation outcomes. This review focuses on recent advances in promoting wound healing and balancing macrophage phenotypes using polysaccharide-based substrates/coatings and new directions to address the limitations in the current understanding of macrophage responses to polysaccharides.

microRNA-27b shuttled by mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes prevents sepsis by targeting JMJD3 and downregulating NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

Exosomal microRNAs (miRs) derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to play roles in the pathophysiological processes of sepsis. Moreover, miR-27b is highly enriched in MSC-derived exosomes. Herein, we aimed to investigate the potential role and downstream molecular mechanism of exosomal miR-27b in sepsis.

Methods

Inflammation was induced in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and mice were made septic by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The expression pattern of miR-27b in MSC-derived exosomes was characterized using RT-qPCR, and its downstream gene was predicted by in silico analysis. The binding affinity between miR-27b, Jumonji D3 (JMJD3), or nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) was characterized to identify the underlying mechanism. We induced miR-27b overexpression or downregulation, along with silencing of JMJD3 or NF-κB to examine their effects on sepsis. The production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 was detected by ELISA.

Results

miR-27b was highly expressed in MSC-derived exosomes. Mechanistic investigations showed that miR-27b targeted JMJD3. miR-27b decreased expression of pro-inflammatory genes by inhibiting the recruitment of JMJD3 and NF-κB at gene promoter region. Through this, MSC-derived exosomal miR-27b diminished production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in LPS-treated BMDMs and septic mice, which could be rescued by upregulation of JMJD3 and NF-κB. Besides, in vitro findings were reproduced by in vivo findings.

Conclusion

These data demonstrated that exosomal miR-27b derived from MSCs inhibited the development of sepsis by downregulating JMJD3 and inactivating the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Recent Advances in Antiinflammatory Material Design

Implants and prostheses are widely used to replace damaged tissues or to treat various diseases. However, besides the risk of bacterial or fungal infection, an inflammatory response usually occurs. Here, recent progress in the field of anti-inflammatory biomaterials is described. Different materials and approaches are used to decrease the inflammatory response, including hydrogels, nanoparticles, implant surface coating by polymers, and a variety of systems for anti-inflammatory drug delivery. Complex multifunctional systems dealing with inflammation, microbial infection, bone regeneration, or angiogenesis are also described. New promising stimuli-responsive systems, such as pH- and temperature-responsive materials, are also being developed that would enable an "intelligent" antiinflammatory response when the inflammation occurs. Together, different approaches hold promise for creation of novel multifunctional smart materials allowing better implant integration and tissue regeneration.

Synthesis of Biotin-Tagged Chitosan Oligosaccharides and Assessment of Their Immunomodulatory Activity

Chitin, a polymer of β-(1→4)-linked N-acetyl-d-glucosamine, is one of the main polysaccharide components of the fungal cell wall. Its N-deacetylated form, chitosan, is enzymatically produced in the cell wall by chitin deacetylases. It exerts immunomodulative, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, and anti-fungal activities with various medical applications. To study the immunobiological properties of chitosan oligosaccharides, we synthesized a series of β-(1→4)-linked N-acetyl-d-glucosamine oligomers comprising 3, 5, and 7 monosaccharide units equipped with biotin tags. The key synthetic intermediate employed for oligosaccharide chain elongation, a disaccharide thioglycoside, was prepared by orthogonal glycosylation of a 4-OH thioglycoside acceptor with a glycosyl trichloroacetimidate bearing the temporary 4-O-tert-butyldimethylsilyl group. The use of silyl protection suppressed aglycon transfer and provided a high yield for the target disaccharide donor. Using synthesized chitosan oligomers, as well as previously obtained chitin counterparts, the immunobiological relationship between these synthetic oligosaccharides and RAW 264.7 cells was studied in vitro. Evaluation of cell proliferation, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg polarized cytokine expression demonstrated effective immune responsiveness and immunomodulation in RAW 264.7 cells exposed to chitin- and chitosan-derived oligosaccharides. Macrophage reactivity was accompanied by significant inductive dose- and structure-dependent protective Th1 and Th17 polarization, which was greater with exposure to chitosan- rather than chitin-derived oligosaccharides. Moreover, no antiproliferative or cytotoxic effects were observed, even following prolonged 48 h exposure. The obtained results demonstrate the potent immunobiological activity of these synthetically prepared chito-oligosaccharides.

Implications of the Human Gut-Brain and Gut-Cancer Axes for Future Nanomedicine

Recent clinical and pathological evidence have implicated the gut microbiota as a nexus for modulating the homeostasis of the human body, impacting conditions from cancer and dementia to obesity and social behavior. The connections between microbiota and human diseases offer numerous opportunities in medicine, most of which have limited or no therapeutic solutions available. In light of this paradigm-setting trend in science, this review aims to provide a comprehensive and timely summary of the mechanistic pathways governing the gut microbiota and their implications for nanomedicines targeting cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Specifically, we discuss in parallel the beneficial and pathogenic relationship of the gut microbiota along the gut-brain and gut-cancer axes, elaborate on the impact of dysbiosis and the gastrointestinal corona on the efficacy of nanomedicines, and highlight a molecular mimicry that manipulates the universal cross-β backbone of bacterial amyloid to accelerate neurological disorders. This review further offers a forward-looking section on the rational design of cancer and dementia nanomedicines exploiting the gut-brain and gut-cancer axes.

Development of chitosan nanocapsules containing essential oil of Matricaria chamomilla L. for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis

Matricaria chamomilla L. has been used for centuries in many applications, including antiparasitic activity. Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease, with limited treatments, due to high cost and toxicity. Thus, there is a need to develop new treatments, and in this context, natural products are targets of these researches. We report the development of chitosan nanocapsules containing essential oil of M. chamomilla (CEO) from oil-in-water emulsions using chitosan modified with tetradecyl chains as biocompatible shell material. The nanocapsules of CEO (NCEO) were analyzed by optical microscopy and dynamic light scattering, which revealed spherical shape and an average size of 800 nm. Successful encapsulation of CEO was further confirmed by fluorescence microscopy observations taking advantage of the autofluorescence properties of CEO. The encapsulation efficiency was around 90%. The entrapment of CEO reduced its cytotoxicity towards normal cells. On the other hand, the CEO was active against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes, exhibiting IC₅₀ of 3.33 μg/mL and 14.56 μg/mL, respectively, while NCEO showed IC₅₀ for promastigotes of 7.18 μg/mL and for intracellular amastigotes of 14.29 μg/mL. These results demonstrate that encapsulation of CEO in nanocapsules using an alkylated chitosan biosurfactant as a "green" stabilizer is a promising therapeutic strategy to treat leishmaniasis.

Chitosan Nanocomplexes for the Delivery of ENaC Antisense Oligonucleotides to Airway Epithelial Cells

Nanoscale drug delivery systems exhibit a broad range of applications and promising treatment possibilities for various medical conditions. Nanomedicine is of great interest, particularly for rare diseases still lacking a curative treatment such as cystic fibrosis (CF). CF is defined by a lack of Cl⁻ secretion through the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and an increased Na⁺ absorption mediated by the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). The imbalanced ion and water transport leads to pathological changes in many organs, particularly in the lung. We developed a non-viral delivery system based on the natural aminopolysaccharide chitosan (CS) for the transport of antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) against ENaC to specifically address Na⁺ hyperabsorption. CS–ASO electrostatic self-assembled nanocomplexes were formed at varying positive/negative (P/N) charge ratios and characterized for their physicochemical properties. Most promising nanocomplexes (P/N 90) displayed an average size of ~150 nm and a zeta potential of ~+30 mV. Successful uptake of the nanocomplexes by the human airway epithelial cell line NCI-H441 was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. Functional Ussing chamber measurements of transfected NCI-H441 cells showed significantly decreased Na⁺ currents, indicating successful downregulation of ENaC. The results obtained confirm the promising characteristics of CS as a non-viral and non-toxic delivery system and demonstrate the encouraging possibility to target ENaC with ASOs to treat abnormal ion transport in CF.

High co-expression of TNF-α and CARDS toxin is a good predictor for refractory Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia

Background

Early distinction between refractory M. pneumoniae pneumonia (RMPP) and non-RMPP (NRMPP) is still difficult. The community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS) toxin can induce inflammatory and histopathological phenotypes associated with M. pneumoniae infection. This study aimed to investigate the clinical significance of CARDS toxin and pro-inflammatory cytokines in children with RMPP and to explore whether CARDS toxin can induce TNF-α expression.

Methods

Levels of CARDS toxin and cytokines in BALF from control and children with MPP were determined by real-time PCR and ELISA, respectively. A receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to assess the diagnostic values of CARDS toxin, TNF-α, and IL-6 in RMPP. The recombinant CARDS toxin was constructed and prepared at different concentrations for stimulation of RAW264.7 cells. After co-culture with CARDS toxin, cytokines were detected by ELISA and the mRNA levels were measured by real-time PCR. Effects of CARDS toxin and TNF-α on inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus secretion in mouse lungs were also evaluated.

Results

Levels of CARDS toxin, TNF-α and IL-6 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were significantly higher in RMPP cases compared with NRMPP cases. Furthermore, TNF-α had better diagnostic ability for differentiation of RMPP with AUC of 0.824 and Youden index of 0.692 compared with CARDS toxin and IL-6. Moreover, CARDS toxin was positively correlated with TNF-α level in MPP cases. In vitro assay revealed that CARDS toxin induced RAW264.7 macrophages to secrete TNF-α. Further in vivo assay showed that TNF-α deletion partially abrogated the CARDS toxin-mediated induction of inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus secretion in mouse lungs.

Conclusions

The high co-expression of TNF-α and CARDS toxin in BALF is a good diagnostic biomarker for differentiating children with RMPP and NRMPP.

Chitosan for gene delivery: Methods for improvement and applications

Gene therapy is a promising strategy for treating challenging diseases. The successful delivery of genes is a critical step for gene therapy. However, concerns about immunogenicity and toxicity are the main obstacles against the widespread use of effective viral systems. Therefore, nonviral vectors are regarded as good alternatives to viral vectors. Chitosan is a natural cationic polysaccharide that could be used to create nonviral gene delivery vectors. Various methods have been developed to improve the properties of chitosan related to gene delivery. This review introduces the features of chitosan in gene delivery, summarizes current progress toward methods promoting the properties of chitosan related to gene delivery, and presents different applications of chitosan in gene delivery vectors. Finally, future prospects of gene vectors based on chitosan are discussed.

Biological Effects of Nanoparticles on Macrophage Polarization in the Tumor Microenvironment

Biological interactions between tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), cancer cells and other cells within the tumor microenvironment contribute to tumorigenesis, tumor growth, metastasis and therapeutic resistance. TAMs can remodel the tumor microenvironment to reduce growth barriers such as the dense extracellular matrix and shift tumors towards an immunosuppressive microenvironment that protects cancer cells from targeted immune responses. Nanoparticles can interrupt these biological interactions within tumors by altering TAM phenotypes through a process called polarization. Macrophage polarization within tumors can shift TAMs from a growth-promoting phenotype towards a cancer cell-killing phenotype that predicts treatment efficacy. Because many types of nanoparticles have been shown to preferentially accumulate within macrophages following systemic administration, there is considerable interest in identifying nanoparticle effects on TAM polarization, evaluating nanoparticle-induced TAM polarization effects on cancer treatment using drug-loaded nanoparticles and identifying beneficial types of nanoparticles for effective cancer treatment. In this review, the macrophage polarization effects of nanoparticles will be described based on their primary chemical composition. Because of their strong macrophage-polarizing and antitumor effects compared to other types of nanoparticles, the effects of iron oxide nanoparticles on macrophages will be discussed in detail. By comparing the macrophage polarization effects of various nanoparticle treatments reported in the literature, this review aims to both elucidate nanoparticle material effects on macrophage polarization and to provide insight into engineering nanoparticles with more beneficial immunological responses for cancer treatment.

Crosstalk between GSK-3, c-Fos, NFκB and TNF-α signaling pathways play an ambitious role in Chitosan Nanoparticles Cancer Therapy

Nanotechnology is a promising era of medicine for developing targeted drug delivery system. Chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) have attracted increasing attention for their wide applications as anticancer drugs. This article is concerned with the therapeutic index of chitosan nanoparticles against diethyl nitrosamine (DEN) induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HCC was induced in rats via repeated DEN administration in a dose of 200 mg/kg BW IP, 2 weeks later rats received (2 ml/kg BW) CCl4 orally for 2 months followed by daily treatment with chitosan nanoparticles in an oral dose of 12 mg/kg for 1 month. Then the gene expression of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3), (c-FOS), nuclear factor kappa-B (NFκB) and tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF-α) were reported in rats sera and the correlation between GSK-3, C-Fos, NFƘB and TNF-α and liver tumorigenesis was investigated. The results elucidated that DEN significantly increased serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Marked increments in serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NOx) levels along with a slight reduction of glutathione (GSH) level were evidenced in HCC. Liver injury triggered an inflammatory response by enhancing the mRNA gene expression of NFκB and TNF-α. DEN effectively activated apoptotic markers GSK-3 and c-FOS. Oral administration of CNPs alleviated the oxidative, inflammatory and apoptotic hazards induced via DEN. The histopathological examination reinforced these results. The present study highlights the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic potentials of CNPs against DEN-induced HCC.

Thermosensitive polynorbornene poly(ethylene oxide) nanoparticles loaded with oligoDNAs: an innovative approach for acting on cancer-associated pain

DNA oligonucleotides (oligoDNAs) have been recently identified as a novel class of therapeutic tools for acting on the cancer-associated pain.