Nano-based delivery systems for berberine: A modern anti-cancer herbal medicine

Fe-doped biodegradable dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles for starvation therapy and photothermal-enhanced cascade catalysis in tumor therapy

Combination therapies have attracted significant attention because they address the limitations of monotherapy while improving overall efficacy. In this study, we designed a novel nanoplatform, named GOx@Fe-DMSN@PDA (GFDP), by integrating Fe2+ into dendritic mesoporous silica nanoparticles (DMSN) and selecting glucose oxidase (GOx) as the model drug loaded into the DMSN pores. Additionally, we coated the surface of the DMSN with polydopamine (PDA) to confer pH/near infrared (NIR) light-responsive controlled-release behavior and photothermal therapy (PTT). The introduction of Fe2+ into the DMSN framework greatly improved biodegradability and enhanced the peroxidase (POD)-like activity of GFDP. In addition, GOx could consume glucose and generate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) within tumor cells to facilitate starvation therapy and enhance cascade catalysis. The PDA coating provided the DMSN with an intelligent response release ability, promoting efficient photothermal conversion and achieving the PTT effect. Cellular tests showed that under NIR light irradiation, GFDP exhibited a synergistic effect of PTT-enhanced starvation therapy and cascade catalysis, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 2.89 μg/mL, which was significantly lower than that of GFDP without NIR light irradiation (18.29 μg/mL). The in vivo anti-tumor effect indicated that GFDP could effectively accumulate at the tumor site for thermal imaging and showed remarkable synergistic therapeutic effects. In summary, GFDP is a promising nanoplatform for multi-modal combination therapy that integrates starvation therapy, PTT, and cascade catalysis.

Self-assembled carrier-free formulations based on medicinal and food active ingredients

The popularity of medicinal plants, which have a unique system and are mostly used in compound form for the prevention and treatment of a wide range of diseases, is growing worldwide. In recent years, with advances in chemical separation and structural analysis techniques, many of the major bioactive molecules of medicinal plants have been identified. However, the active ingredients in medicinal plants often possess chemical characteristics, including poor water solubility, stability and bioavailability, which limit their therapeutic applications. To address this problem, self-assembly of small molecules from medicinal food sources provides a new strategy. Driven by various types of acting forces, medicinal small molecules with modifiable groups, multiple sites of action, hydrophobic side chains, and rigid backbones with self-assembly properties are able to form various supramolecular network hydrogels, nanoparticles, micelles, and other self-assemblies. This review first summarizes the forms of self-assemblies such as supramolecular network hydrogels, nanoparticles, and micelles at the level of the action site, and discusses the recent studies on the active ingredients in medicinal plants that can be used for self-assembly, in addition to summarizing the advantages of self-assemblies for a variety of disease applications, including wound healing, antitumor, anticancer, and diabetes mellitus. Finally, the problems of self-assemblers and the possible directions for future development are presented. We firmly believe that self-assemblers have the potential to develop effective compounds from drug-food homologous plants, providing valuable information for drug research and new strategies and perspectives for the modernization of Chinese medicine.

Berberine and Lung Cancer: From Pure Form to Its Nanoformulations

Lung cancer is the most fatal cancer worldwide. The etiology of lung cancer has yet to be fully characterized. Smoking and air pollution are several risk factors for lung cancer. Berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, is an antihyperglycemic, antidepressant, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer compound. Evidence substantiates that berberine has antitumor effects, exerting its effects by targeting a variety of cellular and molecular processes, such as apoptosis, autophagy, cell cycle arrest, migration, and metastasis. Although the beneficial effects of berberine have been reported, some limitations including low bioavailability and absorption as well as poor aqueous solubility have hindered its clinical application. Nanotechnology and nanodelivery bioformulation approaches may bypass these limitations. In addition, the combination of berberine with other therapies has been shown to result in greater treatment efficacy for lung cancer. Herein, we summarize cellular and molecular pathways that are affected by berberine, its clinical efficacy upon various combinations, and the potential for nanotechnology in lung cancer therapy.

Effects and mechanisms of berberine-loaded tetrahedral framework nucleic acids on osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disease that plagues the world, the complications of which, spinal fractures and hip fractures, seriously endanger the health of the elderly. At present, the main treatment for osteoporosis is anti-osteoporosis drugs, some of which, however, have poor efficacy and side effects. Thus, the development of new drugs for the treatment of osteoporosis is of clinical significance. Berberine (BBR) has a good therapeutic effect on osteoporosis, but its poor solubility and instability limit its effect. Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs) are a novel nano-drug delivery tool, and their good cell entry ability and stability make them an excellent carrier. Therefore, a new nanocomplex T-BBR was synthesized by carrying BBR with tFNAs. Compared with BBR, T-BBR showed better osteogenic and anti-osteoporosis abilities in both in vivo and in vitro experiments, the mechanism of which was realized through the Wnt signaling pathway.

Transforming Cancer Treatment with Nanotechnology: The Role of Berberine as a Star Natural Compound

Berberine (BBR), recognized as an oncotherapeutic phytochemical, exhibits its anti-cancer properties via multiple molecular pathways. However, its clinical application is hindered by suboptimal tumor accumulation, rapid systemic elimination, and diminished bioactive concentration owing to extensive metabolic degradation. To circumvent these limitations, the strategic employment of nanocarriers and other drugs in combination with BBR is emerging as a focus to potentiate its anti-cancer efficacy. This review introduced the expansive spectrum of BBR's anti-cancer activities, BBR and other drugs co-loaded nanocarriers for anti-cancer treatments, and evaluated the synergistic augmentation of these amalgamated modalities. The aim is to provide an overview of BBR for cancer treatment based on nano-delivery. Berberine (BBR), recognized as an oncotherapeutic phytochemical, exhibits its anti-cancer properties via multiple molecular pathways. However, its clinical application is hindered by suboptimal tumor accumulation, rapid systemic elimination, and diminished bioactive concentration owing to extensive metabolic degradation. To circumvent these limitations, the strategic employment of nanocarriers and other drugs in combination with BBR is emerging as a focus to potentiate its anti-cancer efficacy. Nano-delivery systems increase drug concentration at the tumor site by improving pharmacological activity and tissue distribution, enhancing drug bioavailability. Organic nanocarriers have advantages for berberine delivery including biocompatibility, encapsulation, and controlled release of the drug. While the advantages of inorganic nanocarriers for berberine delivery mainly lie in their efficient loading ability of the drug and their slow release ability of the drug. This review introduced the expansive spectrum of BBR's anti-cancer activities, BBR and other drugs co-loaded nanocarriers for anti-cancer treatments, and evaluated the synergistic augmentation of these amalgamated modalities. The aim is to provide an overview of BBR for cancer treatment based on nano-delivery.

Oral Administration of Berberine Hydrochloride Based on Chitosan/Carboxymethyl-β-Cyclodextrin Hydrogel

In this study, a novel oral formulation of berberine hydrochloride (BBH) hydrogel was successfully synthesized through physical cross-linking using chitosan (CS) and carboxymethyl-β-cyclodextrin (CMCD). The characterization results confirmed the successful synthesis of the CS/CMCD hydrogel and the subsequent loading of BBH into this composite (CS/CMCD/BBH) was effectively accomplished. The BBH was used as a model drug and the resulting hydrogel demonstrated a sustained drug release profile. In addition to its improved solubility and sustained release characteristics, the hydrogel exhibited excellent antibacterial activity against common pathogens such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), and Candida albicans (C. albicans). Additionally, in vitro studies indicated that the hydrogel was not cytotoxic to NIH3T3 and HaCaT cells, suggesting its safety for biomedical applications. This lack of cytotoxic effects, combined with the mechanical strength, solubility improvements, and antibacterial properties of the hydrogel, positions the CS/CMCD/BBH hydrogel as a promising candidate for the effective oral delivery of BBH. By addressing the solubility and delivery challenges of BBH, this hydrogel offers a viable solution for the oral administration of BBH, with potential applications in various biomedical fields.

An intratumor bacteria-targeted DNA nanocarrier for multifaceted tumor microenvironment intervention

Intratumor bacteria, which are involved with complex tumor development mechanisms, can compromise the therapeutic efficiencies of cancer chemotherapeutics. Therefore, the development of anti-tumor agents targeting intratumor bacteria is crucial in overcoming the drug inactivation induced by bacteria colonization. In this study, a double-bundle DNA tetrahedron-based nanocarrier is developed for intratumor bacteria-targeted berberine (Ber) delivery. The combination of aptamer modification and high drug loading efficacy endow the DNA nanocarrier TA@B with enhanced delivery performance in anti-tumor therapy without obvious systemic toxicity. The loaded natural isoquinoline alkaloid Ber exhibits enhanced antimicrobial, anticancer, and immune microenvironment regulation effects, ultimately leading to efficient inhibition of tumor proliferation. This intratumor bacteria-targeted DNA nanoplatform provides a promising strategy in intervening the bacteria-related microenvironment and facilitating tumor therapy.

Berberine and berberine nanoformulations in cancer therapy: Focusing on lung cancer

Lung cancer is the second most prevalent cancer and ranks first in cancer-related death worldwide. Due to the resistance development to conventional cancer therapy strategies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, various natural products and their extracts have been revealed as alternatives. Berberine (BBR), which is present in the stem, root, and bark of various trees, could exert anticancer activities by regulating tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune responses via modulating several signaling pathways within the tumor microenvironment. Due to its poor water solubility, poor pharmacokinetics/bioavailability profile, and extensive p-glycoprotein-dependent efflux, BBR application in (pre) clinical studies is restricted. To overcome these limitations, BBR can be encapsulated in nanoparticle (NP)-based drug delivery systems, as monotherapy or combinational therapy, and improve BBR therapeutic efficacy. Nanoformulations also facilitate the selective delivery of BBR into lung cancer cells. In addition to the anticancer activities of BBR, especially in lung cancer, here we reviewed the BBR nanoformulations, including polymeric NPs, metal-based NPs, carbon nanostructures, and others, in the treatment of lung cancer.

Berberine encapsulated phenylboronic acid-conjugated pullulan nanoparticles: Synthesis, characterization and anticancer activity validated in A431 skin cancer cells and 3D spheroids

Polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems are in high demand due to their biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and low-cost. In this study, sialic acid receptor targeted 4-carboxy phenylboronic acid modified pullulan-stearic acid conjugate (4-cPBA-PUL-SA) was synthesized and characterized for the delivery of Berberine (BBR). BBR-loaded 4-cPBA-PUL-SA nanoparticles (BPPNPs) were monodispersed (PDI: 0.238 ± 0.07), with an average hydrodynamic particle size of 191.6 nm and 73.6 % encapsulation efficiency. BPPNPs showed controlled BBR release and excellent colloidal stability, indicating their potential for drug delivery application. The cytotoxicity results indicated that BPPNPs exhibited dose and time-dependent cytotoxicity against human epidermoid carcinoma cells (A431) as well as 3D spheroids. Targeted BPPNPs demonstrated significantly higher anticancer activity compared to BBR and non-targeted BPNPs. The IC50 values for BPPNPs (2.29 μg/ml) were significantly lower than BPNPs (4.13 μg/ml) and BBR (19.61 μg/ml), indicating its potential for skin cancer treatment. Furthermore, CSLM images of A431 cells and 3D spheroids demonstrated that BPPNPs have higher cellular uptake and induced apoptosis compared to free BBR and BPNPs. In conclusion, BPPNPs demonstrate promising potential as an effective drug delivery system for skin cancer therapy.

Berberine Effects in Pre-Fibrotic Stages of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease-Clinical and Pre-Clinical Overview and Systematic Review of the Literature

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the predominant cause of chronic liver conditions, and its progression is marked by evolution to non-alcoholic steatosis, steatohepatitis, cirrhosis related to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, and the potential occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. In our systematic review, we searched two databases, Medline (via Pubmed Central) and Scopus, from inception to 5 February 2024, and included 73 types of research (nine clinical studies and 64 pre-clinical studies) from 2854 published papers. Our extensive research highlights the impact of Berberine on NAFLD pathophysiology mechanisms, such as Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK), gut dysbiosis, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), Sirtuins, and inflammasome. Studies involving human subjects showed a measurable reduction of liver fat in addition to improved profiles of serum lipids and hepatic enzymes. While current drugs for NAFLD treatment are either scarce or still in development or launch phases, Berberine presents a promising profile. However, improvements in its formulation are necessary to enhance the bioavailability of this natural substance.

GSH-activable heterotrimeric nano-prodrug for precise synergistic therapy of TNBC

Combination chemotherapy is an effective approach for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) therapy, especially when drugs are administered at specific optimal ratios. However, at present, strategies involving precise and controllable ratios based on effective loading and release of drugs are unavailable. Herein, we designed and synthesized a glutathione (GSH)--responsive heterotrimeric prodrug and formulated it with an amphiphilic polymer to obtain nanoparticles (DSSC2 NPs) for precise synergistic chemotherapy of TNBC. The heterotrimeric prodrug was prepared using docetaxel (DTX) and curcumin (CUR) at the optimal synergistic ratio of 1: 2. DTX and CUR were covalently conjugated by disulfide linkers. Compared with control NPs, DSSC2 NPs had quantitative/ratiometric drug loading, high drug co-loading capacity, better colloidal stability, and less premature drug leakage. After systemic administration, DSSC2 NPs selectively accumulated in tumor tissues and released the encapsulated drugs triggered by high levels of GSH in cancer cells. In vitro and in vivo experiments validated that DSSC2 NPs released DTX and CUR at the predefined ratio and had a highly synergistic therapeutic effect on tumor suppression in TNBC, which can be attributed to ratiometric drug delivery and synchronous drug activation. Altogether, the heterotrimeric prodrug delivery system developed in this study represents an effective and novel approach for combination chemotherapy.

Self-assembled nanodrug delivery systems for anti-cancer drugs from traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a combination of raw herbs and herbal extracts with a plethora of documented beneficial bioactivities, which has unique advantages in anti-tumor therapy, and many of its major bioactive molecules have been identified in recent years due to advances in chemical separation and structural analysis. However, the major chemical classes of plant-derived bioactive compounds frequently possess chemical properties, including poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability, that limit their therapeutic application. Alternatively, natural small molecules (NSMs) containing these components possess modifiable groups, multiple action sites, hydrophobic side chains, and a rigid skeleton with self-assembly properties that can be exploited to construct self-assembled nanoparticles with therapeutic effects superior to their individual constituents. For instance, the construction of a self-assembled nanodrug delivery system can effectively overcome the strong hydrophobicity and poor in vivo stability of NSMs, thereby greatly improving their bioavailability and enhancing their anti-tumor efficacy. This review summarizes the self-assembly methods, mechanisms, and applications of a variety of NSMs, including terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, and saponins, providing a theoretical basis for the subsequent research on NSMs and the development of SANDDS.

Natural compound library screening to identify berberine as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

Fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) play a critical role on the exacerbation and deterioration of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Aberrant activation of FLS pyroptosis signaling is responsible for the hyperplasia of synovium and destruction of cartilage of RA. This study investigated the screened traditional Chinese medicine berberine (BBR), an active alkaloid extracted from the Coptis chinensis plant, that regulates the pyroptosis of FLS and secretion of inflammatory factors in rheumatoid arthritis.

METHODS

First, BBR was screened using a high-throughput drug screening strategy, and its inhibitory effect on RA-FLS was verified by in vivo and in vitro experiments. Second, BBR was intraperitoneally administrated into the collagen-induced arthritis rat model, and the clinical scores, arthritis index, and joint HE staining were evaluated. Third, synovial tissues of CIA mice were collected, and the expression of NLRP3, cleaved-caspase-1, GSDMD-N, Mst1, and YAP was detected by Western blot.

RESULTS

The administration of BBR dramatically alleviated the severity of collagen-induced arthritis rat model with a decreased clinical score and inflammation reduction. In addition, BBR intervention significantly attenuates several pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, interleukin-17, and interleukin-18). Moreover, BBR can reduce the pyroptosis response (caspase-1, NLR family pyrin domain containing 3, and gasdermin D) of the RA-FLS in vitro, activating the Hippo signaling pathway (Mammalian sterile 20-like kinase 1, yes-associated protein, and transcriptional enhanced associate domains) so as to inhibit the pro-inflammatory effect of RA-FLS.

CONCLUSION

These results support the role of BBR in RA and may have therapeutic implications by directly repressing the activation, migration of RA-FLS, which contributing to the attenuation of the progress of CIA. Therefore, targeting PU.1 might be a potential therapeutic approach for RA. Besides, BBR inhibited RA-FLS pyroptosis by downregulating of NLRP3 inflammasomes (NLRP3, caspase-1) and eased the pro-inflammatory activities via activating the Hippo signaling pathway, thereby improving the symptom of CIA.

Nano-Drug Delivery Systems Based on Natural Products

Natural products have proven to have significant curative effects and are increasingly considered as potential candidates for clinical prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Compared with synthetic drugs, natural products not only have diverse structures but also exhibit a range of biological activities against different disease states and molecular targets, making them attractive for development in the field of medicine. Despite advancements in the use of natural products for clinical purposes, there remain obstacles that hinder their full potential. These challenges include issues such as limited solubility and stability when administered orally, as well as short durations of effectiveness. To address these concerns, nano-drug delivery systems have emerged as a promising solution to overcome the barriers faced in the clinical application of natural products. These systems offer notable advantages, such as a large specific surface area, enhanced targeting capabilities, and the ability to achieve sustained and controlled release. Extensive in vitro and in vivo studies have provided further evidence supporting the efficacy and safety of nanoparticle-based systems in delivering natural products in preclinical disease models. This review describes the limitations of natural product applications and the current status of natural products combined with nanotechnology. The latest advances in nano-drug delivery systems for delivery of natural products are considered from three aspects: connecting targeting warheads, self-assembly, and co-delivery. Finally, the challenges faced in the clinical translation of nano-drugs are discussed.

Different Effects of Berberine Delivery to Mitochondria on Cells Derived from the Neural Crest

Energy metabolism is crucial for cell polarity and pathogenesis. Mitochondria, which are essential for maintaining energy homeostasis within cells, can be targeted by drug delivery to regulate energy metabolism. However, there is a lack of research comparing how mitochondria control energy metabolism in different cell types derived from the neural crest. Understanding the effects of berberine (BBR), a compound that acts on mitochondria, on energy metabolism in neural crest-derived cells is important. This study reports how MITO-Porter, a mitochondria-targeted liposome, affects neuroblasts (Neuro2a cells) and normal human epidermal melanocytes (NHEMs) when loaded with BBR. We found that treatment with MITO-Porter containing BBR reduced mitochondrial respiration in Neuro2a cells, while it caused a slight increase in NHEMs. Additionally, the treatment shifted the ATP production pathway in Neuro2a cells to rely more on glycolysis, while in NHEMs, there was a slight decrease in the reliance on glycolysis. We also observed a significant decrease in ATP production in Neuro2a cells, while NHEMs showed a tendency to increase ATP production. Importantly, on the basis of the results of the Premix WST-1 assay, the study found that BBR treatment was not toxic to either cell type. It is important to take note of the varied effects of BBR treatment on different cell types derived from the neural crest. These findings necessitate attention when utilizing NHEMs as a cell model in the development of therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative diseases, including the use of BBR for metabolic control.

Enhanced anticancer activity of piperine: Structural optimization and chitosan-based microgels with boosted drug delivery

As a plant-derived drug, piperine possesses therapeutic efficacy for many diseases, but its inherent low solubility and bioavailability have greatly limited its clinical use. Herein, we extracted piperine from black pepper, optimized the structure of piperine to prepare various derivatives, and then explored the anticancer activity of these derivatives. Piperine and its derivatives have high anticancer selectivity against 4T1 cells, exhibiting obvious anticancer properties even at a low concentration of 100 μg/mL. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of piperine and its derivatives were investigated using density functional theory, demonstrating their considerable biological activity. Moreover, the chitosan-based microgels were prepared to encapsulate the hydrophobic piperine derivative with a high loading efficiency of 81.7 % to overcome the low water solubility of the piperine derivative. It is worth noting that excessive glutathione in tumor cells triggers the degradation of microgels and realizes controllable drug release of up to 72.3 %. Due to its excellent properties, chitosan-based microgels loaded with the piperine derivative can obtain good anticancer behavior of approximately 13.14 % cell viability against 4T1 cells. Therefore, the chitosan-based microgels overcome the low water solubility of the piperine derivative through encapsulation and thus further augment their delivery efficiency and cell internalization capability to realize excellent anticancer activity. This work demonstrates the enhanced anticancer efficacy of the hydrophobic plant-derived drug by means of structural optimization of piperine and chitosan-based microgels with boosted drug delivery.

Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Assessment of a New Berberine Formulation with Enhanced Absorption In Vitro and in Human Volunteers

Berberine is a plant-origin quaternary isoquinoline alkaloid with a vast array of biological activities, including antioxidant and blood-glucose- and blood-lipid-lowering effects. However, its therapeutic potential is largely limited by its poor oral bioavailability. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro solubility and Caco-2 cell permeability followed by pharmacokinetic profiling in healthy volunteers of a new food-grade berberine delivery system (i.e., Berberine LipoMicel®). X-ray diffractometry (XRD), in vitro solubility, and Caco-2 cell permeability indicated higher bioavailability of LipoMicel Berberine (LMB) compared to the standard formulation. Increased aqueous solubility (up to 1.4-fold), as well as improved Caco-2 cell permeability of LMB (7.18 × 10-5 ± 7.89 × 10-6 cm/s), were observed when compared to standard/unformulated berberine (4.93 × 10-6 ± 4.28 × 10-7 cm/s). Demonstrating better uptake, LMB achieved significant increases in AUC0-24 and Cmax compared to the standard formulation (AUC: 78.2 ± 14.4 ng h/mL vs. 13.4 ± 1.97 ng h/mL, respectively; p < 0.05; Cmax: 15.8 ± 2.6 ng/mL vs. 1.67 ± 0.41 ng/mL) in a pilot study of healthy volunteers (n = 10). No adverse reactions were reported during the study period. In conclusion, LMB presents a highly bioavailable formula with superior absorption (up to six-fold) compared to standard berberine formulation and may, therefore, have the potential to improve the therapeutic efficacy of berberine. The study has been registered on ClinicalTrials.gov with Identifier NCT05370261.

Facile extraction of berberine from different plants, separation, and identification by thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and biological evaluation against Leishmaniosis

The extraction of berberine was carried out from Berberis vulgaris, Berberis aquifolium, and Hydrastis canadensis plants using ethanol and water (70:30, v/v). The extracted berberine was characterized by ultraviolet-visible and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The purity of berberine was ascertained by thin-layer chromatography using n-propanol-formic acid-water (95:1:4) and (90:1:9) solvents. hRf values were in the range of 44-49 with compact spots (diameter 0.2-0.4 cm). HPLC was carried out using ammonium acetate buffer and acetonitrile in gradient mode with Zodiac (4.6 × 150 mm, 3 μm) column. The flow rate was 1.0 mL/min and detection was at 220 nm. The values of separation and resolution factors of the standard and the extracted berberine were in the range of 1.13-1.16 and 1.40-1.71, respectively. A comparison has shown that both thin-layer chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods found applications in different situations and requirements. The extracted berberine samples were used to treat Leishmaniosis and the results showed better activity of berberine in comparison to the standard drug Amphotericin B. Briefly, the reported research is a novel and may be used to extract berberine from plants, separation and identification of berberine by thin layer chromatography and HPLC and to treat Leishmaniosis.

Development of Gelled-Oil Nanoparticles for the Encapsulation and Release of Berberine

In this study, a new drug carrier based on gelled-oil nanoparticles (GNPs) was designed and synthesized for the encapsulation and release of the model hydrophobic drug, berberine chloride (BCl). Two compositions with different oil phases were examined, sesame oil (SO) and cinnamaldehyde (Cin), which were emulsified with water, stabilized with Tween 80 (Tw80), and gelled using an N-alkylated primary oxalamide low-molecular-weight gelator (LMWG) to give stable dispersions of GNPs between 100 and 200 nm in size. The GNP formulation with Cin was significantly favored over SO due to (1) lower gel melting temperatures, (2) higher gel mechanical strength, and (3) significantly higher solubility, encapsulation efficiency, and loading of BCl. Also, the solubility and loading of BCl in Cin were significantly increased (at least 7-fold) with the addition of cinnamic acid. In vitro release studies showed that the release of BCl from the GNPs was independent of gelator concentration and lower than that for BCl solution and the corresponding nanoemulsion (no LWMG). Also, cell internalization studies suggested that the N-alkylated primary oxalamide LMWG did not interfere with the internalization efficiency of BCl into mouse mast cells. Altogether, this work demonstrates the potential use of these new GNP formulations for biomedical studies involving the encapsulation of drugs and nutraceuticals and their controlled release.

Current perspectives and trends in nanoparticle drug delivery systems in breast cancer: bibliometric analysis and review

The treatment of breast cancer (BC) is a serious challenge due to its heterogeneous nature, multidrug resistance (MDR), and limited therapeutic options. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) represent a promising tool for overcoming toxicity and chemotherapy drug resistance in BC treatment. No bibliometric studies have yet been published on the research landscape of NDDS-based treatment of BC. In this review, we extracted data from 1,752 articles on NDDS-based treatment of BC published between 2012 and 2022 from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database. VOSviewer, CiteSpace, and some online platforms were used for bibliometric analysis and visualization. Publication trends were initially observed: in terms of geographical distribution, China and the United States had the most papers on this subject. The highest contributing institution was Sichuan University. In terms of authorship and co-cited authorship, the most prolific author was Yu Zhang. Furthermore, Qiang Zhang and co-workers have made tremendous achievements in the field of NDDS-based BC treatment. The article titled "Nanomedicine in cancer therapy: challenges, opportunities, and clinical applications" had the most citations. The Journal of Controlled Release was one of the most active publishers in the field. "Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries" was the most cited reference. We also analysed "hot" and cutting-edge research for NDDSs in BC treatment. There were nine topic clusters: "tumour microenvironment," "nanoparticles (drug delivery)," "breast cancer/triple-negative breast cancer," "combination therapy," "drug release (pathway)," "multidrug resistance," "recent advance," "targeted drug delivery", and "cancer nanomedicine." We also reviewed the core themes of research. In summary, this article reviewed the application of NDDSs in the treatment of BC.

Synergistic Combination of Letrozole and Berberine in Ascorbic Acid-Stabilized AuNPs: A Promising Solution for Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a deadly disease that affects countless women worldwide. The most conventional treatments for breast cancer, such as the administration of anticancer medications such as letrozole (LTZ), pose significant barriers due to the non-selective delivery and low bioavailability of cytotoxic drugs leading to serious adverse effects and multidrug resistance (MDR). Addressing these obstacles requires an innovative approach, and we propose a combined strategy that synergistically incorporates LTZ with berberine (BBR) into stabilised AuNPs coated with ascorbic acid (AA), known as LTZ-BBR@AA-AuNPs. The LTZ-BBR@AA-AuNPs, a novel combined drug delivery system, were carefully designed to maximise the entrapment of both LTZ and BBR. The resulting spherical nanoparticles exhibited remarkable efficiency in trapping these two compounds, with rates of 58% and 54%, respectively. In particular, the average hydrodynamic diameter of these nanoparticles was determined to be 81.23 ± 4.0 nm with a PDI value of only 0.286, indicating excellent uniformity between them. Furthermore, their zeta potential was observed to be -14.5 mV, suggesting high stability even under physiological conditions. The release profiles showed that after being incubated for about 24 h at pH levels ranging from acidic (pH = 5) to basic (pH = 7), the percentage released for both drugs ranged from 56-72%. This sustained and controlled drug release can reduce any negative side effects while improving therapeutic efficacy when administered directly to cancer. MDA-MB-231 cells treated with LTZ-BBR@AA-AuNPs for 48 h exhibited IC50 values of 2.04 ± 0.011 μg/mL, indicating potent cytotoxicity against cells. Furthermore, the nanoparticles demonstrated excellent stability throughout the duration of the treatment.

DNA repair pathways in breast cancer: from mechanisms to clinical applications

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BC) is a complex disease with various subtypes and genetic alterations that impact DNA repair pathways. Understanding these pathways is essential for developing effective treatments and improving patient outcomes.

AREA COVERED

This study investigates the significance of DNA repair pathways in breast cancer, specifically focusing on various pathways such as nucleotide excision repair, base excision repair, mismatch repair, homologous recombination repair, non-homologous end joining, fanconi anemia pathway, translesion synthesis, direct repair, and DNA damage tolerance. The study also examines the role of these pathways in breast cancer resistance and explores their potential as targets for cancer treatment.

CONCLUSION

Recent advances in targeted therapies have shown promise in exploiting DNA repair pathways for BC treatment. However, much research is needed to improve the efficacy of these therapies and identify new targets. Additionally, personalized treatments that target specific DNA repair pathways based on tumor subtype or genetic profile are being developed. Advances in genomics and imaging technologies can potentially improve patient stratification and identify biomarkers of treatment response. However, many challenges remain, including toxicity, resistance, and the need for more personalized treatments. Continued research and development in this field could significantly improve BC treatment.

Challenges and opportunities for improving the druggability of natural product: Why need drug delivery system?

Bioactive natural products (BNPs) are the marrow of medicinal plants, which are the secondary metabolites of organisms and have been the most famous drug discovery database. Bioactive natural products are famous for their enormous number and great safety in medical applications. However, BNPs are troubled by their poor druggability compared with synthesis drugs and are challenged as medicine (only a few BNPs are applied in clinical settings). In order to find a reasonable solution to improving the druggability of BNPs, this review summarizes their bioactive nature based on the enormous pharmacological research and tries to explain the reasons for the poor druggability of BNPs. And then focused on the boosting research on BNPs loaded drug delivery systems, this review further concludes the advantages of drug delivery systems on the druggability improvement of BNPs from the perspective of their bioactive nature, discusses why BNPs need drug delivery systems, and predicts the next direction.

Development of Berberine-Loaded Nanoparticles for Astrocytoma Cells Administration and Photodynamic Therapy Stimulation

Berberine (BBR) is known for its antitumor activity and photosensitizer properties in anti-cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT), and it has previously been favorably assayed against glioblastoma multiforme (GBM)-derived cells. In this work, two BBR hydrophobic salts, dodecyl sulfate (S) and laurate (L), have been encapsulated in PLGA-based nanoparticles (NPs), chitosan-coated by the addition of chitosan oleate in the preparation. NPs were also further functionalized with folic acid. All the BBR-loaded NPs were efficiently internalized into T98G GBM established cells, and internalization increased in the presence of folic acid. However, the highest mitochondrial co-localization percentages were obtained with BBR-S NPs without folic acid content. In the T98G cells, BBR-S NPs appeared to be the most efficient in inducing cytotoxicity events and were therefore selected to assess the effect of photodynamic stimulation (PDT). As a result, PDT potentiated the viability reduction for the BBR-S NPs at all the studied concentrations, and a roughly 50% reduction of viability was obtained. No significant cytotoxic effect on normal rat primary astrocytes was observed. In GBM cells, a significant increase in early and late apoptotic events was scored by BBR NPs, with a further increase following the PDT scheme. Furthermore, a significantly increased depolarization of mitochondria was highlighted following BBR-S NPs’ internalization and mostly after PDT stimulation, compared to untreated and PDT-only treated cells. In conclusion, these results highlighted the efficacy of the BBR-NPs-based strategy coupled with photoactivation approaches to induce favorable cytotoxic effects in GBM cells.

In vitro toxicity of naringin and berberine alone, and encapsulated within PMMA nanoparticles

Phytochemical compounds, such as naringin and berberine, have been used for many years due to their antioxidant activities, and consequently, beneficial health effects. In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the antioxidant properties of naringin, berberine and poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) nanoparticles (NPs) encapsulated with naringin or berberine and their possible cytotoxic, genotoxic, and apoptotic effects on mouse fibroblast (NIH/3 T3) and colon cancer (Caco-2) cells. According to the results of the study, it was found that the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibition antioxidant activity of naringin, berberine, and naringin or berberine encapsulated PMMA NPs, was significantly increased at higher tested concentrations due to the antioxidant effects of naringin, berberine and naringin or berberine encapsulated PMMA NPs. As a result of the cytotoxicity assay, after 24-, 48- and 72-h of exposure, all of the studied compounds caused cytotoxic effects in both cell lines. Genotoxic effects of studied compounds were not registered at lower tested concentrations. Based on these data, polymeric nanoparticles encapsulated with naringin or berberine may contribute to new treatment approaches for cancer, but further in vivo and in vitro research is required.

Complexes of Ag and ZnO nanoparticles with BBR for enhancement of gastrointestinal antibacterial activity through the impacts of size and composition

This study introduces the bioformulations of Ag/BBR and ZnO/BBR complexes against pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. Without the use of toxic reduction agents, Ag and ZnO NPs were prepared using an electrochemical method and then facially mixed with BBR solution to form Ag/BBR and ZnO/BBR complexes. BBR molecules are strongly conjugated with Ag and ZnO NPs through coordinated bonding and electrostatic interaction. As a result, the presence of BBR significantly influenced the nanoparticle growth, resulting in the formation of core/shell structured Ag/BBR and ZnO/BBR NPs with small particle sizes. The antibacterial test showed that BBR, Ag, or ZnO components all contributed to the increase of antibacterial ability of Ag/BBR and ZnO/BBR NPs against both methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Salmonella enteritidis (S. enteritidis). The bactericidal ability of Ag/BBR and ZnO/BBR complexes against MRSA was exhibited even at a concentration of four-fold dilution (corresponding to 1.25 g L-1 of BBR and 46.25 mg L-1 of Ag) and two-fold dilution (corresponding to 2.5 g L-1 of BBR and 10 mg L-1 of ZnO), respectively, while that of the Ag/BBR complex against S. enteritidis showed at a concentration of two-fold dilution corresponding to 2.5 g L-1 of BBR and 92.5 mg L-1 of Ag. The results obtained in this study support that Ag/BBR and ZnO/BBR complexes can be potential therapeutic agents against gastrointestinal infections.

Oxidative stress induced by berberine-based mitochondria-targeted low temperature photothermal therapy

Introduction: Mitochondria-targeted low-temperature photothermal therapy (LPTT) is a promising strategy that could maximize anticancer effects and overcome tumor thermal resistance. However, the successful synthesis of mitochondria-targeted nanodrug delivery system for LPTT still faces diverse challenges, such as laborious preparations processes, low drug-loading, and significant systemic toxicity from the carriers. Methods: In this study, we used the tumor-targeting folic acid (FA) and mitochondria-targeting berberine (BBR) derivatives (BD) co-modified polyethylene glycol (PEG)-decorated graphene oxide (GO) to synthesize a novel mitochondria-targeting nanocomposite (GO-PEG-FA/BD), which can effectively accumulate in mitochondria of the osteosarcoma (OS) cells and achieve enhanced mitochondria-targeted LPTT effects with minimal cell toxicity. The mitochondria-targeted LPTT effects were validated both in vitro and vivo. Results: In vitro experiments, the nanocomposites (GO-PEG-FA/BD) could eliminate membrane potential (ΔΨm), deprive the ATP of cancer cells, and increase the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which ultimately induce oxidative stress damage. Furthermore, in vivo results showed that the enhanced mitochondria-targeted LPTT could exert an excellent anti-cancer effect with minimal toxicity. Discussion: Taken together, this study provides a practicable strategy to develop an ingenious nanoplatform for cancer synergetic therapy via mitochondria-targeted LPTT, which hold enormous potential for future clinical translation.

Magnetic Nanoparticles: Current Advances in Nanomedicine, Drug Delivery and MRI

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have evolved tremendously during recent years, in part due to the rapid expansion of nanotechnology and to their active magnetic core with a high surface-to-volume ratio, while their surface functionalization opened the door to a plethora of drug, gene and bioactive molecule immobilization. Taming the high reactivity of the magnetic core was achieved by various functionalization techniques, producing MNPs tailored for the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular or neurological disease, tumors and cancer. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are established at the core of drug-delivery systems and could act as efficient agents for MFH (magnetic fluid hyperthermia). Depending on the functionalization molecule and intrinsic morphological features, MNPs now cover a broad scope which the current review aims to overview. Considering the exponential expansion of the field, the current review will be limited to roughly the past three years.

A Novel Berberine–Glycyrrhizic Acid Complex Formulation Enhanced the Prevention Effect to Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity by Pharmacokinetic Modulation of Berberine in Rats

Developing a new drug delivery system is one of the useful approaches to overcome the limited use of berberine (BBR) to enhance its absorption and bioavailability. We prepared a novel berberine–glycyrrhizic acid (BBR–GL) complex formulation to increase the plasma concentration and bioavailability of BBR by improving BBR solubility and lowering the absorption barrier. The complex formulation with BBR and GL in the ratio 1:1 was developed through the self-assembly process and evaluated in vitro. Compared with BBR and BBR/GL physical mixture, the BBR–GL complex showed different characteristics by SEM, DSC, FT-IR, and PXRD measurement. In pharmacokinetic evaluation, the BBR–GL complex significantly increased the plasma concentration of BBR and the major metabolite berberrubine (BBB), with the AUC of BBR elevated to 4.43-folds, while the complex was safe as BBR. Furthermore, doxorubicin (DOX) was used to induce cardiotoxicity. Hematological study, histopathological examinations, electrocardiography (ECG), cardiac secretion measurement, and biochemical index analysis proved that the model of doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC) was conducted successfully. With the AUC of BBR increasing in the BBR–GL complex and the absorbed complex itself, the BBR–GL complex enhanced prevention effect to DIC and exhibited a significant prevention effect to attenuate heart damage. Our findings demonstrated that a novel BBR-loaded BBR–GL complex formulation could increase BBR plasma concentration. Improvement of BBR bioavailability by the BBR–GL complex could coordinate with GL to attenuate DIC. Concerning the safety of the drug delivery system at present, the BBR–GL complex could be a potential therapeutic formulation for the prevention of cardiac damage in the clinical application of doxorubicin.

Berberine as a Potential Agent for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed and deadly malignancies worldwide. The incidence of CRC has been increasing, especially in young people. Although great advances have been made in managing CRC, the prognosis is unfavorable. Numerous studies have shown that berberine (BBR) is a safe and effective agent presenting significant antitumor effects. Nevertheless, the detailed underlying mechanism in treating CRC remains indistinct. In this review, we herein offer beneficial evidence for the utilization of BBR in the management and treatment of CRC, and describe the underlying mechanism(s). The review emphasizes several therapeutic effects of BBR and confirms that BBR could suppress CRC by modulating gene expression, the cell cycle, the inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and several signaling pathways. In addition, BBR also displays antitumor effects in CRC by regulating the gut microbiota and mucosal barrier function. This review emphasizes BBR as a potentially effective and safe drug for CRC therapy.

Enhancing Anticancer Potency of a 13-Substituted Berberine Derivative with Cationic Liposomes

Cationic liposomal formulations of the telomeric G-quadruplex stabilizing ligand, 13-(2-naphthylmethoxy)berberine bromide (1), have been developed with the purpose of delivering 1 into the nucleus of cancer cells for potential telomere targeting. Berberine derivative 1 was encapsulated in various cationic lipids 2-4 by the thin film evaporation method; these lipids are cationic after amine protonation. The most appropriate liposomal berberine formulation was that of 1 and the cholesterol derived cationic lipid 4 in a weight ratio of 1:20 with 76.5% encapsulation efficiency of 1. Cellular uptake studies in the HeLa and HT-29 cancer cells line showed that the liposomal berberine derivative uptake in the cells was higher and more stable than for berberine derivative 1 alone while free 1 was completely decomposed in the cells within 60 min exposure to the cells. Anticancer activity of the liposomal berberine derivative 1 based on 4 was greater than that for the free berberine derivative 1 in the MCF-7, HeLa and HT-29 cell line by 2.3-, 4.9- and 5.3-fold, respectively, and also, interestingly, superior to the anticancer drug doxorubicin against the HT29 cancer cell line.

A review of the berberine natural polysaccharide nanostructures as potential anticancer and antibacterial agents

Despite the promising medicinal properties, berberine (BBR), due to its relatively poor solubility in plasma, low bio-stability and limited bioavailability is not used broadly in clinical stages. Due to these drawbacks, drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nanoscale natural polysaccharides, are applied to address these concerns. Natural polymers are biodegradable, non-immunogenic, biocompatible, and non-toxic agents that are capable of trapping large amounts of hydrophobic compounds in relatively small volumes. The use of nanoscale natural polysaccharide improves the stability and pharmacokinetics of the small molecules and, consequently, increases the therapeutic effects and reduces the side effects of the small molecules. Therefore, this paper presents an overview of the different methods used for increasing the BBR solubility and bioavailability. Afterwards, the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic of BBR nanostructures were discussed followed by the introduction of natural polysaccharides of plant (cyclodextrines, glucomannan), the shells of crustaceans (chitosan), and the cell wall of brown marine algae (alginate)-based origins used to improve the dissolution rate of poorly soluble BBR and their anticancer and antibacterial properties. Finally, the anticancer and antibacterial mechanisms of free BBR and BBR nanostructures were surveyed. In conclusion, this review may pave the way for providing some useful data in the development of BBR-based platforms for clinical applications.

Alkaloid Escholidine and Its Interaction with DNA Structures

Berberine, the most known quaternary protoberberine alkaloid (QPA), has been reported to inhibit the SIK3 protein connected with breast cancer. Berberine also appears to reduce the bcl-2 and XIAP expression-proteins responsible for the inhibition of apoptosis. As some problems in the therapy with berberine arose, we studied the DNA binding properties of escholidine, another QPA alkaloid. CD, fluorescence, and NMR examined models of i-motif and G-quadruplex sequences present in the n-myc gene and the c-kit gene. We provide evidence that escholidine does not induce stabilization of the i-motif sequences, while the interaction with G-quadruplex structures appears to be more significant.

Promises of phytochemical based nano drug delivery systems in the management of cancer

Cancer is the leading cause of human disease and death worldwide, accounting for 7.6 million deaths per year and projected to reach 13.1 million by 2030. Many phytochemicals included in traditional medicine have been utilized in the management of cancer. Conventional chemotherapy is generally known to be the most effective treatment of metastatic cancer but these cancerous cells might grow resistant to numerous anticancer drugs over time that resulting in treatment failure. This review tried to portray the advancement in the anticancer and chemopreventive effects of several phytochemicals and some of its members encapsulated in the nano-based delivery system of the drug. It comprises the issue associated with limited use of each phytoconstituents in human cancer treatment are discussed, and the benefits of entrapment into nanocarriers are evaluated in terms of drug loading efficiency, nanocarrier size, release profile of the drug, and in vitro and/or in vivo research and treatment testing, such as cytotoxicity assays and cell inhibition/viability.

Nanoformulations of Ursolic Acid: A Modern Natural Anticancer Molecule

Background: Ursolic acid (UA) is a natural pentacyclic triterpene derived from fruit, herb, and other plants. UA can act on molecular targets of various signaling pathways, inhibit the growth of cancer cells, promote cycle stagnation, and induce apoptosis, thereby exerting anticancer activity. However, its poor water-solubility, low intestinal mucosal absorption, and low bioavailability restrict its clinical application. In order to overcome these deficiencies, nanotechnology, has been applied to the pharmacological study of UA.

Objective: In this review, we focused on the absorption, distribution, and elimination pharmacokinetics of UA in vivo, as well as on the research progress in various UA nanoformulations, in the hope of providing reference information for the research on the anticancer activity of UA.

Methods: Relevant research articles on Pubmed and Web of Science in recent years were searched selectively by using the keywords and subheadings, and were summarized systematically.

Key finding: The improvement of the antitumor ability of the UA nanoformulations is mainly due to the improvement of the bioavailability and the enhancement of the targeting ability of the UA molecules. UA nanoformulations can even be combined with computational imaging technology for monitoring or diagnosis.

Conclusion: Currently, a variety of UA nanoformulations, such as micelles, liposomes, and nanoparticles, which can increase the solubility and bioactivity of UA, while promoting the accumulation of UA in tumor tissues, have been prepared. Although the research of UA in the nanofield has made great progress, there is still a long way to go before the clinical application of UA nanoformulations.

Berberine in Human Oncogenic Herpesvirus Infections and Their Linked Cancers

Human herpesviruses are known to induce a broad spectrum of diseases, ranging from common cold sores to cancer, and infections with some types of these viruses, known as human oncogenic herpesviruses (HOHVs), can cause cancer. Challenges with viral latency, recurrent infections, and drug resistance have generated the need for finding new drugs with the ability to overcome these barriers. Berberine (BBR), a naturally occurring alkaloid, is known for its multiple biological activities, including antiviral and anticancer effects. This paper comprehensively compiles all studies that have featured anti-HOHV properties of BBR along with promising preventive effects against the associated cancers. The mechanisms and pathways induced by BBR via targeting the herpesvirus life cycle and the pathogenesis of the linked malignancies are reviewed. Approaches to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of BBR and its use in clinical practice as an anti-herpesvirus drug are also discussed.

Berberine carried gelatin/sodium alginate hydrogels with antibacterial and EDTA-induced detachment performances

Most existing hydrogel wound dressings lack gentle detachment property. In this work, novel hydrogels with anti-bacterial and induced detachment properties were prepared. Both gelatin (G) and sodium alginate (SA) are natural polymer materials. The G/SA hydrogels were prepared by dual cross-linking. The addition of SA significantly improves the mechanical properties of composite hydrogels. The tensile modulus and elongation at break of the G/SA hydrogels with 2.0% SA could reach 99.23 ± 2.18 kPa and 85.47 ± 5.01%, respectively. In addition, the interconnected porous network and high swelling ratio (over 9.99 ± 0.33) are beneficial to the transmission of oxygen and absorption of exudates to accelerate the healing of wound. Subsequently, berberine (BBR) was loaded into the G/SA hydrogels. The BBR/G/SA hydrogels show sustained drug release for 168 h and exhibit anti-bacterial effect against Staphylococcus aureus. The results of L929 cells cultured with the hydrogel extracts indicate good biocompatibility. Finally, results of EDTA-induced detachment performances demonstrate that the hydrogels could be removed from the wound as the internal structure destroyed. All illustrated results above demonstrated the BBR carried G/SA hydrogels have potential used as wound dressing materials in future.

The Effects of Autophagy-Related Genes and lncRNAs in Therapy and Prognosis of Colorectal Cancer

Cellular autophagy plays an important role in the occurrence and development of colorectal cancer (CRC). Whether autophagy-related genes and lncRNAs can be used as ideal markers in CRC is still controversial. The purpose of this study is to identify novel treatment and prognosis markers of CRC. We downloaded transcription and clinical data of CRC from the GEO (GSE40967, GSE12954, GSE17536) and TCGA database, screened for differentially autophagy-related genes (DEAGs) and lncRNAs, constructed prognostic model, and analyzed its relationship with immune infiltration. TCGA and GEO datasets (GSE12954 and GSE17536) were used to validate the effect of the model. Oncomine database and Human Protein Atlas verified the expression of DEAGs. We obtained a total of 151 DEAGs in three verification sets collaboratively. Then we constructed a risk prognostic model through Lasso regression to obtain 15 prognostic DEAGs from the training set and verified the risk prognostic model in three verification sets. The low-risk group survived longer than the high-risk group. Age, gender, pathological stage, and TNM stage were related to the prognostic risk of CRC. On the other hand, BRAF status, RFS event, and tumor location are considered as most significant risk factors of CRC in the training set. Furthermore, we found that the immune score of the low-risk group was higher. The content of CD8 + T cells, active NK cells, macrophages M0, macrophages M1, and active dendritic cells was noted more in the high-risk group. The content of plasma cells, resting memory CD4 + T cells, resting NK cells, resting mast cells, and neutrophil cells was higher in the low-risk group. After all, the Oncomine database and immunohistochemistry verified that the expression level of most key autophagy-related genes was consistent with the results that we found. In addition, we obtained six lncRNAs co-expressed with DEAGs from the training set and found that the survival time was longer in the low-risk group. This finding was verified in the verification set and showed same trend to the results mentioned above. In the final analysis, these results indicate that autophagy-related genes and lncRNAs can be used as prognostic and therapeutic markers for CRC.

Applications of natural product-derived carbon dots in cancer biology

Natural products have contributed conspicuously to the development of innovative nanomedicines. Hence, the interface between nanomaterial science and plant natural products may bestow comprehensive diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for tackling diseases such as cancer and neurological disorders. Natural product-derived carbon dots (NPdCDs) have revealed noteworthy attributes in the fields of cancer theranostics, microbial imaging, drug sensing and drug delivery. As plants consist of a cocktail of bioactive phytomolecules, the NPdCDs can be anticipated to have medicinal properties, biocompatibility, photo-stability and easy functionalization. NPdCDs have wide-ranging applications. The primary objective of this review is to comment on recent developments in the use of NPdCDs, with special reference to their application in cancer biology. The future of the use of NPdCDs has also been considered.