Solid lipid nanoparticles-mediated enhanced antidepressant activity of duloxetine in lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive model

Solid lipid nanoparticle: A potent vehicle of the kaempferol for brain delivery through the blood-brain barrier in the focal cerebral ischemic rat

Kaempferol is major flavonoid present in Convolvulus pluricaulis. This phytochemical protects the brain against oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation, neurotoxicity, neurodegeneration and cerebral ischemia induced neuronal destruction. Kaempferol is poorly water soluble. Our study proved that solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were efficient carrier of kaempferol through blood-brain barrier (BBB). Kaempferol was incorporated into SLNs prepared from stearic acid with polysorbate 80 by the process of ultrasonication. Mean particle size and zeta potential of kaempferol loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (K-SLNs) were 451.2 nm and -15.0 mV. Atomic force microscopy showed that K-SLNs were spherical in shape. Fourier transformed infrared microscopy (FTIR) showed that both stearic acid and kaempferol were present in K-SLNs. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that the matrices of K-SLNs were in untidy crystalline state. Entraptment efficiency of K-SLNs was 84.92%. In-vitro drug release percentage was 93.24%. Kaempferol loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (K-SLNs) showed controlled release profile. In-vitro uptake study showed significant efficiency of K-SLNs to cross blood-brain barrier (BBB). After oral administration into the focal cerebral ischemic rat, accumulation of fluorescent labeled K-SLNs was observed in the brain cortex which confirmed its penetrability into the brain. It significantly decreased the neurological deficit, infarct volume and level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased the level of pro-inflammatory mediators like NF-κB and p-STAT3. Damaged neurons and brain texture were improved. This study indicated increased bioavailability of kaempferol into the brain tissue through SLNs formulation.

Tacrolimus-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles as an efficient topical therapeutic for the effective treatment of atopic dermatitis symptoms

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic cutaneous disease with a complex underlying mechanism, and it cannot be completely cured. Thus, most treatment strategies for AD aim at relieving the symptoms. Although corticosteroids are topically applied to alleviate AD, adverse side effects frequently lead to the withdrawal of AD therapy. Tacrolimus (TAC), a calcineurin inhibitor, has been used to treat AD, but its high molecular weight and insolubility in water hinder its skin permeability. Herein, we developed and optimized TAC-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles (TAC@CNPs) to improve the skin permeability of TAC by breaking the tight junctions in the skin. The prepared nanoparticles were highly loadable and efficient and exhibited appropriate characteristics for percutaneous drug delivery. TAC@CNP was stable for 4 weeks under physiological conditions. CNP released TAC in a controlled manner, with enhanced skin penetration observed. In vitro experiments showed that CNP was non-toxic to keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells, and TAC@CNP dispersed in an aqueous solution was as anti-proliferative as TAC solubilized in a good organic solvent. Importantly, an in vivo AD mouse model revealed that topical TAC@CNP containing ~1/10 of the dose of TAC found in commercially used Protopic® Ointment exhibited similar anti-inflammatory activity to that of the commercial product. TAC@CNP represents a potential therapeutic strategy for the management of AD.

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and curcumin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for improved targeting of lung cancer: In vitro and in vivo investigation

The objective of this study was to develop nanotechnology-mediated paclitaxel (PAC) and curcumin (CUR) co-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (PAC-CUR-SLNs) for the treatment of lung cancer, which is a leading cause of death worldwide. Around 85 % cases of lungs cancer constitute non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). PAC-CUR-SLNs were prepared via high pressure homogenization. The in vitro drug release of PAC-CUR-SLNs was checked followed by their in vitro cytotoxic investigation using adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549) cell lines. Anticancer effects along with side effects of the synergistic delivery of PAC-CUR-SLNs were studied in vivo, using BALB/c mice. PAC-CUR-SLNs were nano sized (190 nm), homogeneously disseminated particles with %IE of both PAC and CUR above 94 %. PAC-CUR-SLNs released PAC and CUR in a controlled fashion when compared with free drug suspensions. The cytotoxicity of PAC-CUR-SLNs was higher than individual drug-loaded SLNs and pure drugs. Moreover, the co-delivery displayed synergistic effect, indicating potential of PAC-CUR-SLNs in lung cancer treatment. In vivo tumor investigation of PAC-CUR-SLNs exhibited 12-fold reduced tumor volume and almost no change in body weight of BALB/c mice, when compared with the experimental groups including control group. The inhibition of tumor rate on day 28 was 82.7 % in the PAC-CUR-SLNs group, which was significantly higher than the pure drugs and monotherapies. It can be concluded that, encapsulating the co-loaded antitumor drugs like PAC-CUR in SLNs may help in improved targeting of the tumor with enhanced anticancer effect.

Sodium alginate-based smart gastro-retentive drug delivery system of revaprazan loaded SLNs; Formulation and characterization

Revaprazan (REV), a novel reversible Proton Pump Inhibitor (PPI) used to treat peptic ulcers, faces challenges in therapeutic efficacy due to its poor dissolution properties and a short half-life. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have emerged as a drug delivery system capable of enhancing dissolution and bioavailability of lipid soluble drugs. Here, we report on the development and optimization of a smart gastro-retentive raft system of REV-loaded SLNs (GRS/REV-SLNs) to enhance drug bioavailability and gastric retention. The optimized REV-SLNs had a particle size of 120 nm, a Polydispersity Index (PDI) of 0.313, a zeta potential of -20.7 mV, and efficient drug incorporation of 88 %. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) affirmed the spherical morphology of these REV-SLNs, while Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed no chemical interactions among components. In-vitro assessment of the final GRS/REV-SLNs demonstrated sustained gelation and buoyancy for over 12 h, which would significantly enhance REV retention and its release within the stomach. Further assessments in rats confirmed successful gel transformation within the stomach, resulting in the improved bioavailability of REV. Thus, the development of GRS/REV-SLNs significantly improved the delivery and bioavailability of REV within the stomach, and offers a potentially improved method of treating peptic ulcers.

Formulation, optimization, in-vivo biodistribution studies and histopathological safety assessment of duloxetine HCl-loaded ultra-elastic nanovesicles for antidepressant effect after intranasal and transdermal delivery

Duloxetine hydrochloride (DUL) is a BCS class-II antidepressant drug, acting via serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibition. Despite high oral absorption, DUL suffers limited bioavailability due to extensive gastric and first-pass metabolism. To improve DUL's bioavailability; DUL-loaded elastosomes were developed, via full factorial design, utilizing various span®60: cholesterol ratios, edge activator types and amounts. Entrapment efficiency (E.E.%), particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP) and in-vitro released percentages after 0.5 h (Q_0.5h) and 8 h (Q_8h) were evaluated. Optimum elastosomes (DUL-E1) were assessed for morphology, deformability index, drug crystallinity and stability. DUL pharmacokinetics were evaluated in rats following intranasal and transdermal application of DUL-E1 elastosomal gel. DUL-E1 elastosomes [comprising span®60 and cholesterol (1:1) and brij S2 (edge activator; 5 mg)] were optimum with high E.E.% (81.5 ± 3.2%), small PS (432 ± 13.2 nm), ZP (-30.8 ± 3.3 mV), acceptable Q_0.5h (15.6 ± 0.9%), and high Q_8h (79.3 ± 3.8%). Intranasal and transdermal DUL-E1 elastosomes revealed significantly higher C_max (251 ± 18.6 and 248 ± 15.9 ng/mL) at T_max (2 and 4 h) and improved relative bioavailability (≈ 2.8 and 3.1 folds) respectively, in comparison to oral DUL aqueous solution. In-vivo histopathological studies were conducted to ensure the safety of DUL-E1. Elastosomes are promising novel nano-carriers, capable of enhancing the bioavailability of DUL via various routes of administration.

Nano biomaterials based strategies for enhanced brain targeting in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases: an up-to-date perspective

Neurons and their connecting axons gradually degenerate in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), leading to dysfunctionality of the neuronal cells and eventually their death. Drug delivery for the treatment of effected nervous system is notoriously complicated because of the presence of natural barriers, i.e., the blood-brain barrier and the blood cerebrospinal fluid barrier. Palliative care is currently the standard care for many diseases. Therefore, treatment programs that target the disease's origin rather than its symptoms are recommended. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery platforms offer an innovative way to circumvent these obstacles and deliver medications directly to the central nervous system, thereby enabling treatment of several common neurological problems, i.e., Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Interestingly, the combination of nanomedicine and gene therapy enables targeting of selective mutant genes responsible for the progression of NDs, which may provide a much-needed boost in the struggle against these diseases. Herein, we discussed various central nervous system delivery obstacles, followed by a detailed insight into the recently developed techniques to restore neurological function via the differentiation of neural stem cells. Moreover, a comprehensive background on the role of nanomedicine in controlling neurogenesis via differentiation of neural stem cells is explained. Additionally, numerous phytoconstituents with their neuroprotective properties and molecular targets in the identification and management of NDs are also deliberated. Furthermore, a detailed insight of the ongoing clinical trials and currently marketed products for the treatment of NDs is provided in this manuscript.

Brain-targeted delivery of Valsartan using solid lipid nanoparticles labeled with Rhodamine B; a promising technique for mitigating the negative effects of stroke

The brain is a vital organ that is protected from the general circulation and is distinguished by the presence of a relatively impermeable blood brain barrier (BBB). Blood brain barrier prevents the entry of foreign molecules. The current research aims to transport valsartan (Val) across BBB utilizing solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) approach to mitigate the adverse effects of stroke. Using a 3²-factorial design, we could investigate and optimize the effect of several variables in order to improve brain permeability of valsartan in a target-specific and sustained-release manner, which led to alleviation of ischemia-induced brain damage. The impact of each of the following independent variables was investigated: lipid concentration (% w/v), surfactant concentration (% w/v), and homogenization speed (RPM) on particle size, zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (EE) %, and cumulative drug release percentage (CDR) %. TEM images revealed a spherical form of the optimized nanoparticles, with particle size (215.76 ± 7.63 nm), PDI (0.311 ± 0.02), ZP (-15.26 ± 0.58 mV), EE (59.45 ± 0.88%), and CDR (87.59 ± 1.67%) for 72 hours. SLNs formulations showed sustained drug release, which could effectively reduce the dose frequency and improve patient compliance. DSC and X-ray emphasize that Val was encapsulated in the amorphous form. The in-vivo results revealed that the optimized formula successfully delivered Val to the brain through intranasal rout as compared to a pure Val solution and evidenced by the photon imaging and florescence intensity quantification. In a conclusion, the optimized SLN formula (F9) could be a promising therapy for delivering Val to brain, alleviating the negative consequences associated with stroke.

M6P-modified solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with matrine for the treatment of fibrotic liver

Liver fibrosis is a key pathological process shared by the progression of various chronic liver diseases. Treatment of liver fibrosis can effectively block the occurrence and development of hepatic cirrhosis or even carcinoma. Currently, there is no effective drug delivery vehicle for curing liver fibrosis. In this study, we designed matrine (MT)-loaded mannose 6-phosphate (M6P) modified human serum albumin (HSA) conjugated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), named M6P-HSA-MT-SLN for treatment of hepatic fibrosis. We demonstrated that M6P-HSA-MT-SLN exhibited controlled and sustained release properties and good stability over 7 days. The drug release experiments showed that M6P-HSA-MT-SLN exhibited slow and controlled drug release characteristics. In addition, M6P-HSA-MT-SLN showed a significant targeted ability to fibrotic liver. Importantly, in vivo studies indicated that M6P-HSA-MT-SLN could significantly improve histopathological morphology and inhibit the fibrotic phenotype. In addition, in vivo experiments demonstrate that M6P-HSA-MT-SLN could reduce the expression of fibrosis markers and alleviate the damage of liver structure. Hence, the M6P-HSA-MT-SLN provide a promising strategy to deliver therapeutic agents to fibrotic liver to prevent liver fibrosis.

Quality by design for sumatriptan loaded nano-ethosomal mucoadhesive gel for the therapeutic management of nitroglycerin induced migraine

Migraine is a progressive neurological condition often accompanied by nausea and vomiting. Various drugs have recently been used in the treatment of migraine, including sumatriptan (SUT). However, SUT has poor pharmacological effects mainly due to its reduced permeability, blood brain barrier (BBB) effect, half-life and bioavailability. Herein, we developed SUT loaded nano-ethosomes (SUT-NEs) for intranasal (IN) delivery, after their incorporation into chitosan based mucoadhesive gel (SUT-NEsG). The observed mean particle size of SUT-NEs was 109.45 ± 4.03 nm with spherical morphology, mono dispersion (0.191 ± 0.001), negatively charged (-20.90 ± 1.98 mV) and with excellent entrapment efficiency (96.90 ± 1.85 %). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra have depicted the compatibility of the components. Moreover, SUT-NEsG was homogeneous having suitable viscosity and mucoadhesive strength. In vitro release and ex vivo permeation analysis showed sustained release and improved permeation of the SUT-NEsG, respectively. Additionally, histopathological studies of nasal membrane affirmed the safety of SUT-NEsG after IN application. In vivo pharmacokinetic study demonstrated improved brain bioavailability of SUT-NEsG as compared to orally administered sumatriptan solution (SUT-SL). Furthermore, significantly enhanced pharmacological effect of SUT-NEsG was observed in behavioral and biochemical analysis, immunohistochemistry for NF-κB, and enzyme linked immuno assay (ELISA) for IL-1β and TNF-α in Nitroglycerin (NTG) induced migraine model. It can be concluded that migraine may be successfully managed through IN application of SUT-NEsG owing to the direct targeted delivery to the brain.

Preparation, characterization, and pharmacological application of oral Honokiol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for diabetic neuropathy

Honokiol is a phytochemical component with a variety of pharmacological properties. However, the major limitation of Honokiol is its poor solubility and low oral bioavailability. In this study, we formulated and characterized oral Honokiol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) to enhance bioavailability and then evaluated their effectiveness in experimental diabetic neuropathy (DN). The finalized formulation has a spherical morphology, a particle size (PS) of 121.31 ± 9.051 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.249 ± 0.002, a zeta potential (ZP) of -20.8 ± 2.72 mV, and an entrapment efficiency (% EE) of 88.66 ± 2.30 %. In-vitro release data shows, Honokiol-SLNs displayed a sustained release profile at pH (7.4). The oral bioavailability of Honokiol-SLNs was remarkably greater (8-fold) than Honokiol-Pure suspension. The neuroprotective property of Honokiol-SLNs was initially demonstrated against hydrogen peroxide H2O2-stimulated PC12 (pheochromocytoma) cells. Furthermore, results of in-vivo studies demonstrated that treatment with Honokiol-SLNs significantly (p < 0.001) suppressed oxidative stress by inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and significant (p < 0.001) upregulation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling in the spinal cord. The expression of transient receptor potential melastatin 8(TRPM8) and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) was significantly (p < 0.001) downregulated. Honokiol-SLNs inhibited apoptosis by significant (p < 0.001) downregulation of cleaved caspase-3 expression in the spinal cord. These findings demonstrate that Honokiol-SLNs providedbetter neuroprotection in DN because of higher oral bioavailability.

Enhanced cardioprotective activity of ferulic acid-loaded solid lipid nanoparticle in an animal model of myocardial injury

Myocardial infarction results in an increased inflammatory and oxidative stress response in the heart, and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress after MI may offer protective effects to the heart. In the present study, we examined the cardioprotective effects of ferulic acid (FA) and ferulic acid nanostructured solid lipid nanoparticles (FA-SLNs) in an isoproterenol (ISO) induced MI model. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into five experimental groups to compare the effects of FA and FA-SLNs. The findings revealed that ISO led to extensive cardiomyopathy, characterized by increased infarction area, edema formation, pressure load, and energy deprivation. Additionally, ISO increased the levels of inflammatory markers (COX-2, NLRP3, and NF-кB) and apoptotic mediators such as p-JNK. However, treatment with FA and FA-SLNs mitigated the severity of the ISO-induced response, and elevated the levels of antioxidant enzymes while downregulating inflammatory pathways, along with upregulation of the mitochondrial bioenergetic factor PPAR-γ. Furthermore, virtual docking analysis of FA with various protein targets supported the in vivo results, confirming drug-protein interactions. Overall, the results demonstrated that FA-SLNs offer a promising strategy for protecting the heart from further injury following MI. This is attributed to the improved drug delivery and therapeutic outcomes compared to FA alone.

Intranasal Nanotransferosomal Gel for Quercetin Brain Targeting: II. Antidepressant Effect in an Experimental Animal Model

Depression is a serious mental disorder and the most prevalent cause of disability and suicide worldwide. Quercetin (QER) demonstrated antidepressant effects in rats exhibiting anxiety and depressive-like behaviors. In an attempt to improve QER's antidepressant activity, a QER-loaded transferosome (QER-TFS) thermosensitive gel for intranasal administration was formulated and optimized. The therapeutic effectiveness of the optimized formulation was assessed in a depressed rat model by conducting a behavioral analysis. Behavioral study criteria such as immobility, swimming, climbing, sucrose intake, number of crossed lines, rearing, active interaction, and latency to feed were all considerably enhanced by intranasal treatment with the QER-TFS in situ gel in contrast to other formulations. A nasal histopathological study indicated that the QER-TFS thermosensitive gel was safe for the nasal mucosa. An immunohistochemical analysis showed that the animals treated with the QER-TFS thermosensitive gel had the lowest levels of c-fos protein expression, and brain histopathological changes in the depressed rats were alleviated. According to pharmacodynamic, immunohistochemical, and histopathological experiments, the intranasal administration of the QER-TFS thermosensitive gel substantially alleviated depressive symptoms in rats. However, extensive preclinical investigations in higher animal models are needed to anticipate its effectiveness in humans.

Antiplatelet, cytotoxic activities and characterization of green-synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous extract of Nephrolepis exaltata

The goal of the current study was to synthesize zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) using ZnCl₂.2H₂O salt precursor and an aqueous extract of Nephrolepis exaltata (N. exaltata), which act as a capping and reducing agent. N. exaltata plant extract-mediated ZnO-NPs were further characterized by various techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), UV-visible (UV-Vis), and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. The nanoscale crystalline phase of ZnO-NPs was analyzed by the XRD patterns. The FT-IR analysis revealed different functional groups of biomolecules involved in the reduction and stabilization of the ZnO-NPs. The light absorption and optical properties of ZnO-NPs were examined by UV-Vis spectroscopy at a wavelength of 380 nm. The spherical shape morphology of ZnO-NPs with mean particle size ranges between 60 and 80 nm was confirmed by SEM images. While the EDX analysis was used to identify the elemental composition of ZnO-NPs. Furthermore, the synthesized ZnO-NPs demonstrate potential antiplatelet activity by inhibiting the platelet aggregation induced by platelet activation factor (PAF) and arachidonic acid (AA). The results showed that synthesized ZnO-NPs were more effective in inhibiting platelet aggregation induced by AA with IC₅₀ (56% and 10 μg/mL) and PAF (63% and 10 μg/mL), respectively. However, the biocompatibility of ZnO-NPs was assessed in human lung cancer cell line (A549) under in vitro conditions. The cytotoxicity of synthesized nanoparticles revealed that cell viability decreased and the IC₅₀ was found to be 46.7% at a concentration of 75 μg/mL. The present work concluded the green synthesis of ZnO-NPs that was achieved by N. exaltata plant extract and showed good antiplatelet and cytotoxic activity, which demonstrates the lack of harmful effects making them more effective for use in pharmaceutical and medical fields to treat thrombotic disorders.

Levan nanoparticles with intrinsic CD44-targeting ability for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Existing anticancer therapeutics exhibit short half-lives, non-specificity, and severe side effects. To address this, active-targeting nanoparticles have been developed; however, the complex fabrication procedures, scale-up, and low reproducibility delay FDA approval, particularly for functionalized nanoparticles. We developed levan nanoparticles via simple one-pot nanoprecipitation for specific anticancer drug delivery. Levan is a plant polysaccharide which has a binding affinity to CD44 receptors and amphiphilicity. The nanoparticles are self-assembled and enable active-targeting without chemical modifications. The paclitaxel-loaded levan nanoparticles (PTX@LevNP) demonstrated a sustained PTX release and long-term stability. The LevNP can bind CD44 receptors on cancer cells, and PTX@LevNP showed enhanced anticancer activity in CD44-positive cells (SCC7 cells). In SCC7 tumor-bearing mice, the accumulation of LevNP in tumor tissue was 3.7 times higher than that of the free-dye, resulting in improved anticancer efficacy of PTX@LevNP. This new strategy using levan can produce nanoparticles for effective cancer treatment without complex fabrication procedures.

Amoxapine-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles with Superior Preclinical Pharmacokinetics for Better Brain Delivery: LC-MS/MS and GC-MS Analysis

The tricyclic antidepressant amoxapine (AMX) has been reported for a rapid onset of action compared to other cyclic antidepressants. It has very low solubility and bioavailability due to first-pass metabolism. Therefore, we planned to develop solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) of AMX using a single emulsification method to increase its solubility and bioavailability. HPLC and LC-MS/MS methods were developed further to quantify AMX in the formulation, plasma, and brain tissue samples. The formulation was studied for entrapment efficiency, loading, and in vitro drug release. Particle size and ζ potential analyses, AFM, SEM, TEM, DSC, and XRD were used for further characterization. In vivo oral pharmacokinetic and brain pharmacokinetic studies were performed using Wistar rats. The entrapment and loading efficiencies of AMX in SLNs were 85.8 ± 3.42 and 4.5 ± 0.45%, respectively. The developed formulation had a mean particle size of 151.5 ± 7.02 nm and a polydispersity index of 0.40 ± 0.11. DSC and XRD results indicated that AMX was incorporated into the nanocarrier system in an amorphous form. SEM, TEM, and AFM studies of AMX-SLNs confirmed the particles' spherical shape and nanoscale size. AMX solubility increased by approx. 2.67 times compared to the pure drug. The developed LC-MS/MS method was successfully applied to the oral and brain pharmacokinetic study of AMX-loaded SLNs in rats. Oral bioavailability was enhanced 1.6 times compared to the pure drug. The peak plasma concentrations of pure AMX and AMX-SLNs were 617.4 ± 137.4 and 1043.5 ± 150.2 (ng/mL), respectively. AMX-SLNs showed more than 5.8 times brain concentration compared to the pure drug. Based on the findings, it appears that utilizing a solid lipid nanoparticle carrier to transport AMX can be a highly effective delivery method with improved pharmacokinetic properties in the brain. This approach may prove valuable for future antidepressant treatment.

Intranasal Polymeric and Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for CNS Drug Delivery

Nanomedicine is currently focused on the design and development of nanocarriers that enhance drug delivery to the brain to address unmet clinical needs for treating neuropsychiatric disorders and neurological diseases. Polymer and lipid-based drug carriers are advantageous for delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) due to their safety profiles, drug-loading capacity, and controlled-release properties. Polymer and lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) are reported to penetrate the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and have been extensively assessed in in vitro and animal models of glioblastoma, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disease. Since approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of intranasal esketamine for treatment of major depressive disorder, intranasal administration has emerged as an attractive route to bypass the BBB for drug delivery to the CNS. NPs can be specifically designed for intranasal administration by tailoring their size and coating with mucoadhesive agents or other moieties that promote transport across the nasal mucosa. In this review, unique characteristics of polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers desirable for drug delivery to the brain are explored in addition to their potential for drug repurposing for the treatment of CNS disorders. Progress in intranasal drug delivery using polymeric and lipid-based nanostructures for the development of treatments of various neurological diseases are also described.

Increased brain uptake of pterostilbene loaded folate modified micellar delivery system

Effective chemotherapy for clinical treatment of brain diseases is still lacking due to the poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The aim of this study was to construct a folate modified pterostilbene (Pt) loaded polymeric micellar delivery system (F-Pt/M) with mPEG-PCL as carrier material to aim at penetrating the BBB for brain tissue targeting via receptor-mediated endocytosis. In this study, F-Pt/M was prepared using thin-film hydration method and then optimized by response surface methodology (RSM) with the entrapment efficiency (EE), drug loading (DL) and hydrodynamic diameter (HD) as indexes. The average hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential of optimal F-Pt/M were 133.2 nm and 24.6 mV, respectively. DL (18.3%) and EE (98.6%) made the solubility of Pt in water about 25 times higher than that of crude Pt. Results of DSC evaluation revealed that drugs were successfully encapsulated inside the polymeric micelles. TEM images showed that homogeneous spherical micellar structures with a narrow size distribution were developed. The release result in vitro showed that F-Pt/M presented sustained release behavior compared to control free Pt solution. Compared to non-targeted Pt/M, F-Pt/M had a significantly higher cytotoxicity against FR-overexpressing A172 cells. In vitro cellular uptake tests illustrated that the micellar delivery system could significantly improve the accumulation of drugs in target cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. BBB penetration value (P) of F-Pt/M was about 4 folds higher than that of free Pt group. In addition, drug targeting index (DTI) was calculated to determine targeting of F-Pt/M to the brain which was found to be 4.89, implying improved brain targeting was achieved. Hence, the developed F-Pt/M exhibited great potential for delivering more drug molecules across the BBB for the treatment of brain diseases.

In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluation of Fluocinolone Acetonide-Acitretin-Coloaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Topical Treatment of Psoriasis

Psoriasis is chronic autoimmune disease that affects 2-5% of the global population. Fluocinolone acetonide (FLU) and acitretin (ACT) are widely used antipsoriatic drugs that belong to BCS classes II and IV, respectively. FLU exhibits side effects, such as skin irritation and a burning sensation. ACT also shows adverse effects, such as gingivitis, teratogenic effects and xerophthalmia. In the present study, topical nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were fabricated to reduce the side effects and enhance the therapeutic efficacy. FLU-ACT-coloaded NLCs were prepared by the modified microemulsion method and optimized by the Box-Behnken model of Design Expert® version 12. The optimization was based on the particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP) and percentage of encapsulation efficiency (%EE). The physicochemical analyses were performed by TEM, FTIR, XRD and DSC to assess the morphology, chemical interactions between excipients, crystallinity and thermal behavior of the optimized FLU-ACT-coloaded NLCs. The FLU-ACT-coloaded NLCs were successfully loaded into gel and characterized appropriately. The dialysis bag method and Franz diffusion cells were used for the in vitro release and ex vivo permeation studies, respectively. The optimized FLU-ACT-coloaded NLCs had the desired particle size of 288.2 ± 2.3 nm, ZP of -34.2 ± 1.0 mV and %EE values of 81.6 ± 1.1% for ACT and 75 ± 1.3% for FLU. The TEM results confirmed the spherical morphology, while the FTIR results showed the absence of chemical interactions of any type among the ingredients of the FLU-ACT-coloaded NLCs. The XRD and DSC analyses confirmed the amorphous nature and thermal behavior. The in vitro study showed the sustained release of the FLU and ACT from the optimized FLU-ACT-coloaded NLCs and FLU-ACT-coloaded NLC gel compared with the FLU-ACT suspension and conventional gel. The ex vivo study confirmed the minimal permeation of both drugs from the FLU-ACT-coloaded NLC gel.

Augmented Oral Bioavailability and Prokinetic Activity of Levosulpiride Delivered in Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The present study is aimed to develop and optimize levosulpiride-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (LSP-NLCs) for improving oral bioavailability and prokinetic activity of LSP. LSP-NLCs were optimized with D-optimal mixture design using solid lipid, liquid lipid and surfactant concentrations as independent variables. The prepared LSP-NLCs were evaluated for physicochemical properties and solid-state characterization. The in vivo oral pharmacokinetics and prokinetic activity of LSP-NLCs were evaluated in rats. LSP-NLCs formulation was optimized at Precirol® ATO 5/Labrasol (80.55/19.45%, w/w) and Tween 80/Span 80 concentration of 5% (w/w) as a surfactant mixture. LSP-NLCs showed a spherical shape with a particle size of 152 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.230 and an entrapment efficiency of 88%. The DSC and PXRD analysis revealed conversion of crystalline LSP to amorphous state after loading into the lipid matrix. LSP-NLCs displayed a 3.42- and 4.38-flods increase in AUC and Cmax after oral administration compared to LSP dispersion. In addition, LSP-NLCs showed enhanced gastric emptying (61.4%), intestinal transit (63.0%), and fecal count (68.8) compared to LSP dispersion (39.7%, 38.0% and 51.0, respectively). Taken together, these results show improved oral bioavailability and prokinetic activity of LSP-NLCs and presents a promising strategy to improve therapeutic activity of LSP for efficient treatment of gastric diseases.

Improved biopharmaceutical performance of antipsychotic drug using lipid nanoparticles via intraperitoneal route

This study aims to develop, characterize, and examine olanzapine-loaded solid lipid nanocarriers (OLAN-SLNs) for effective brain delivery. OLAN has poor water solubility and low penetration through blood-brain barrier (BBB). Herein, OLAN-SLNs were fabricated using high-pressure homogenization (HPH) method followed by their investigation for particle properties. Moreover, in vitro release and in vivo pharmacokinetics profiles of OLAN-SLNs were compared with pure drug. Anti-psychotic activity was performed in LPS-induced psychosis mice model. Furthermore, expressions of the COX-2 and NF-κB were measured trailed by histopathological examination. The optimized formulation demonstrated nanoparticle size (149.1 nm) with rounded morphology, negative zeta potential (-28.9 mV), lower PDI (0.334), and excellent entrapment efficiency (95%). OLAN-SLNs significantly retarded the drug release and showed sustained release pattern as compared to OLAN suspension. Significantly enhanced bioavailability (ninefold) was demonstrated in OLAN-SLNs when compared with OLAN suspension. Behavioral tests showed significantly less immobility and more struggling time in OLAN-SLNs treated mice group. Additionally, reduced expression of COX-2 and -NF κB in brain was found. Altogether, it can be concluded that SLNs have the potential to deliver active pharmaceutical ingredients to brain, most importantly to enhance their bioavailability and antipsychotic effect, as indicated for OLAN in this study.

A cutback in Imiquimod cutaneous toxicity; comparative cutaneous toxicity analysis of Imiquimod nanotransethosomal gel with 5% marketed cream on the BALB/c mice

Herein, Imiquimod (IMQ) was incorporated in nanotransethosomes (nTES) to develop the IMQ-nTES nano-drug delivery system. IMQ-nTES was optimized using 23 factorial design. The optimized formulation was expressed with a particle size of 192.4 ± 1.60 nm, Poly-dispersibility of 0.115 ± 0.008, and IMQ percent entrapment efficiency of 91.05 ± 3.22%. Smooth and round morphology of IMQ-nTES vesicles was confirmed by TEM micrographs. Moreover, FTIR results have shown drug-excipient compatibility. The IMQ-nTES was laden inside the low molecular weight chitosan gel, which exhibited easy application, spreadability and no irritation to the applied skin. The release pattern has clearly exhibited improved dissolution properties of IMQ with the provision of the sustain release pattern. Higher IMQ content was deposited in deeper epidermis and dermis with IMQ-nTES gel, in contrast to ALDARA. In vivo, comparative toxicity study on BALB/c mice has shown significantly reduced (p < 0.001) psoriatic area severity index (PASI) score and less increment in ear thickness. Epidermal hyperplasia was an obvious finding with ALDARA which was, providentially, minimal in IMQ-nTES gel-treated skin. FTIR analysis of skin tissue has shown an enhancement of lipid and protein content in the ALDARA group, however, in the IMQ-nTES group no such change was observed. With ALDARA application, CD4+ T-cells and constitutive NF-κβ expression were significantly elevated, in comparison to the IMQ-nTES gel treated group. Moreover, the adequate expression of IFN-γ and cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells were suggesting the preserved IMQ efficacy with IMQ-nTES gel. Quantification of cutaneous as well as systemic inflammatory markers has also suggested the reduced psoriatic potential of IMQ-nTES gel. In essence, IMQ-nTES gel can be a suitable alternative to ALDARA owing to its better safety profile.

Novel Phenobarbital-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Epilepsy Treatment: From QbD to In Vivo Evaluation

Pharmacological treatments of central nervous system diseases are always challenging due to the restrictions imposed by the blood–brain barrier: while some drugs can effectively cross it, many others, some antiepileptic drugs among them, display permeability issues to reach the site of action and exert their pharmacological effects. The development of last-generation therapeutic nanosystems capable of enhancing drug biodistribution has gained ground in the past few years. Lipid-based nanoparticles are promising systems aimed to improve or facilitate the passage of drugs through biological barriers, which have demonstrated their effectiveness in various therapeutic fields, without signs of associated toxicity. In the present work, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) containing the antiepileptic drug phenobarbital were designed and optimized by a quality by design approach (QbD). The optimized formulation was characterized by its entrapment efficiency, particle size, polydispersity index, and Z potential. Thermal properties were analyzed by DSC and TGA, and morphology and crystal properties were analyzed by AFM, TEM, and XRD. Drug localization and possible interactions between the drug and the formulation components were evaluated using FTIR. In vitro release kinetic, cytotoxicity on non-tumoral mouse fibroblasts L929, and in vivo anticonvulsant activity in an animal model of acute seizures were studied as well. The optimized formulation resulted in spherical particles with a mean size of ca. 178 nm and 98.2% of entrapment efficiency, physically stable for more than a month. Results obtained from the physicochemical and in vitro release characterization suggested that the drug was incorporated into the lipid matrix losing its crystalline structure after the synthesis process and was then released following a slower kinetic in comparison with the conventional immediate-release formulation. The NLC was non-toxic against the selected cell line and capable of delivering the drug to the site of action in an adequate amount and time for therapeutic effects, with no appreciable neurotoxicity. Therefore, the developed system represents a promising alternative for the treatment of one of the most prevalent neurological diseases, epilepsy.

Formulation optimization, in vitro and in vivo evaluation of agomelatine-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers for augmented antidepressant effects

The present study was intended to prepare and optimize agomelatine-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (AGM-NLCs) for augmented in vivo antidepressant potential. AGM-NLCs were optimized on several parameters including cumulative hydrophilic-lipophilic balance of surfactants, proportions of solid and liquid lipids, total amounts of drug and surfactants. AGM-NLCs were assessed for their physicochemical properties, in vitro AGM release and in vivo antidepressant effects in mice model. The optimized AGM-NLCs demonstrated spherical morphology with average particle size of 99.8 ± 2.6 nm, PDI of 0.142 ± 0.017, zeta potential of - 23.2 ± 1.2 mV and entrapment efficiency of 97.1 ± 2.1%. Thermal and crystallinity studies depict amorphous nature of AGM after its incorporation into NLCs. AGM-NLCs exhibit a sustained drug release profile after initial 2 h. Mice treated with AGM-NLCs exhibited reduced immobility time in behavioral analysis. Furthermore, cresyl violet staining demonstrated an improved neuronal morphology and survival in AGM-NLCs group. The concentrations and the expression of inflammatory markers (TNF-α and COX-2) in mice brain were significantly reduced by AGM-NLCs. Taken together, therapeutic effectiveness of AGM was markedly augmented in AGM-NLCs and thereby they could be promising nanocarriers for the effective delivery of antidepressants to brain.

Affective Antidepressant, Cytotoxic Activities, and Characterization of Phyto-Assisted Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Sanvitalia procumbens Aqueous Extract

Green synthesis of nanoparticles has emerged as an effective and environmentally friendly method. Therefore, the current investigation is based on the green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) using plant extract of Sanvitalia procumbens (S. procumbens) that act as a capping and reducing agent. S. procumbens is a fast-growing shrub and densely available plant and may have potential to synthesize ZnO-NPs. The synthesized ZnO-NPs were characterized by different techniques, including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), UV-visible (UV-Vis), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The UV-Vis spectrum at 350 nm revealed an absorption peak for the synthesis of ZnO-NPs. In addition, photoactive biomolecules of the prepared ZnO-NPs were identified by using FT-IR spectroscopy. Furthermore, the spherical geometry of ZnO-NPs was evaluated by SEM images. The synthesized ZnO-NPs were also used to enhance the antidepressant activity and exhibited a remarkable reduction in the time of immobility in tail suspension tests (TST) and forced swim tests (FST), as well as increased the BDNF levels in the brain and plasma. ZnO-NPs have a low risk of biocompatibility (cell visibility) at a concentration of 7 g/mL or below. The nanoparticles were biologically compatible when the concentrations were increased up to 11 μg/mL. It was concluded that ZnO-NPs were investigated as a possible carrier for antidepressant drug delivery into the brain, and their excellent cytotoxic activity was evaluated by using the MTT assay to determine their biocompatibility.

Unraveling enhanced brain delivery of paliperidone-loaded lipid nanoconstructs: pharmacokinetic, behavioral, biochemical, and histological aspects

Antipsychotics are accompanied by extrapyramidal side effects that deter treatment adherence and patient compliance. Paliperidone (PPD), an atypical (second-generation) antipsychotic recommended for managing schizophrenia presents biopharmaceutical challenges and pharmacological constraints which dissuade it from crossing the brain barrier. The present research aimed to assess paliperidone-loaded lipid nanoconstruct (PPD-LNC) for an improved antipsychotic activity for managing schizophrenia. High % cell viability in Neuro-2a cells (70–98%) exhibited the safety of PPD-LNC. The pharmacokinetic data showed a 3.46-fold improvement in the relative bioavailability in the brain for PPD-LNC compared to a drug suspension. The pharmacodynamic evaluation demonstrated a significant (p < .05) reduction in cataleptic behavior, attenuated escape latency, and prolonged stay in the open arm with PPD-LNC, thus showing its effectiveness in reducing extrapyramidal symptoms. The histopathological images further validated the safety of the formulation. Reduction in NF-κB levels as identified by immunohistochemical analysis exhibited the anti-inflammatory effect of PPD-LNC. The formulation demonstrated significant (p < .01) improvement in the activity of oxidative stress parameters and attenuation of neuroinflammatory markers. Based on the study findings, it was observed that formulating LNC of PPD would surmount the pharmacological constraints, improve the in vivo performance, and diminish the associated side effects.

Hydrogel Containing Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Loaded with Argan Oil and Simvastatin: Preparation, In Vitro and Ex Vivo Assessment

Transdermal hydrogels have the potential to improve therapeutic outcomes via enhancing bioavailability and reducing toxicity associated with oral delivery. The goal of the present study was to formulate and optimise argan oil loaded transdermal hydrogel containing lipid nanoparticles. The high pressure homogenization (HPH) method was utilised to fabricate Simvastatin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SIM-SLNs) with precirol ATO 5 as a lipid core and Poloxamer 407 (P407) to stabilise the core. The optimised nanoformulation was characterised for its particle diameter, zeta potential, surface morphology, entrapment efficiency, crystallinity and molecular interaction. Furthermore, transdermal hydrogel was characterised for physical appearance, rheology, pH, bio adhesion, extrudability, spreadability and safety profile. In vitro and ex vivo assays were executed to gauge the potential of SLNs and argan oil for transdermal delivery. The mean particle size, zeta potential and polydispersity index (PDI) of the optimised nanoparticles were 205 nm, −16.6 mV and 0.127, respectively. Crystallinity studies and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed no molecular interaction. The in vitro release model explains anomalous non-Fickian release of drug from matrix system. Ex vivo skin penetration studies conducted through a fluorescence microscope confirmed penetration of the formulation across the stratum corneum. Hydrogel plays a crucial role in controlling the burst release and imparting the effect of argan oil as hypolipidemic agent and permeation enhancer.

Targeting Neuroimmune Interactions in Diabetic Neuropathy with Nanomedicine

Significance: Diabetes is a major source of neuropathy and neuropathic pain that is set to continue growing in prevalence. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) and pain associated with diabetes are not adequately managed by current treatment regimens. Perhaps the greatest difficulty in treating DPN is the complex pathophysiology, which involves aspects of metabolic disruption and neurotrophic deficits, along with neuroimmune interactions. There is, therefore, an urgent need to pursue novel therapeutic options targeting the key cellular and molecular players. Recent Advances: To that end, cellular targeting becomes an increasingly compelling drug delivery option as our knowledge of neuroimmune interactions continues to mount. These nanomedicine-based approaches afford a potentially unparalleled specificity and longevity of drug targeting, using novel or established compounds, all while minimizing off-target effects. Critical Issues: The DPN therapeutics directly targeted at the nervous system make up the bulk of currently available treatment options. However, there are significant opportunities based on the targeting of non-neuronal cells and neuroimmune interactions in DPN. Future Directions: Nanomedicine-based agents represent an exciting opportunity for the treatment of DPN with the goals of improving the efficacy and safety profile of analgesia, as well as restoring peripheral neuroregenerative capacity. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 122-143.

Comprehending the potential of metallic, lipid, and polymer-based nanocarriers for treatment and management of depression

The World Health Organization (WHO) ranked depression as the third leading cause of global burden of disease in 2004, and it is predicted to overtake it and move to first place by 2030. It is a mental disorder that causes significant changes in the mood and day-to-day activity of an individual. Various approaches already exist for treating depression but, none of them are completely successful in treating depression. At present, discovering a new medication or delivery mechanism that can manage depression safely and efficiently is a huge challenge. Conventional formulations used in the management of depression have drawbacks like limited penetration, frequent dosing, toxicity, patient compliance concerns as well as brain barriers which are a big hurdle for antidepressant drugs to reach the brain through conventional formulations. Nano-based formulations are gaining popularity as one of the possibilities to overcome the limitations of conventional formulations by reducing the dose and dosing frequency, increasing the efficacy as well as proving it to be safe and effective means of treating depression. This review targets the neurochemistry and pathophysiological concerns of depression, strategies and problems of conventional therapies, and also recent advances in the metallic, lipid, and polymer-based nanoformulations for a variety of antidepressants. A detailed discussion of the expediency of various nanoformulations like liposomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanoparticles, ethosomes, nanocapsules, dendrimer, gold and silver nanoparticles are addressed in the current review. In essence, nanoformulations hold great promises for the treatment of depression as they provide a platform with high penetration potential, targeted transmission, and improved protection and efficacy.

Eplerenone nanocrystals engineered by controlled crystallization for enhanced oral bioavailability

Poor aqueous solubility of eplerenone (EPL) is a major obstacle to achieve sufficient bioavailability after oral administration. In this study, we aimed to develop and evaluate eplerenone nanocrystals (EPL-NCs) for solubility and dissolution enhancement. D-optimal combined mixture process using Design-Expert software was employed to generate different combinations for optimization. EPL-NCs were prepared by a bottom-up, controlled crystallization technique during freeze-drying. The optimized EPL-NCs were evaluated for their size, morphology, thermal behavior, crystalline structure, saturation solubility, dissolution profile, in vivo pharmacokinetics, and acute toxicity. The optimized EPL-NCs showed mean particle size of 46.8 nm. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the formation of elongated parallelepiped shaped NCs. DSC and PXRD analysis confirmed the crystalline structure and the absence of any polymorphic transition in EPL-NCs. Furthermore, EPL-NCs demonstrated a 17-fold prompt increase in the saturation solubility of EPL (8.96 vs. 155.85 µg/mL). The dissolution rate was also significantly higher as indicated by ∼95% dissolution from EPL-NCs in 10 min compared to only 29% from EPL powder. EPL-NCs improved the oral bioavailability as indicated by higher AUC, C_max, and lower T_max than EPL powder. Acute oral toxicity study showed that EPL-NCs do not pose any toxicity concern to the blood and vital organs. Consequently, NCs prepared by controlled crystallization technique present a promising strategy to improve solubility profile, dissolution velocity and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Development, Characterization, and Evaluation of SLN-Loaded Thermoresponsive Hydrogel System of Topotecan as Biological Macromolecule for Colorectal Delivery

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapeutic drugs cause severe toxicities if administered unprotected, without proper targeting, and controlled release. In this study, we developed topotecan- (TPT-) loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for their chemotherapeutic effect against colorectal cancer. The TPT-SLNs were further incorporated into a thermoresponsive hydrogel system (TRHS) (TPT-SLNs-TRHS) to ensure control release and reduce toxicity of the drug. Microemulsion technique and cold method were, respectively, used to develop TPT-SLNs and TPT-SLNs-TRHS. Particle size, polydispersive index (PDI), and incorporation efficiency (IE) of the TPT-SLNs were determined. Similarly, gelation time, gel strength, and bioadhesive force studies of the TPT-SLNs-TRHS were performed. Additionally, in vitro release and pharmacokinetic and antitumour evaluations of the formulation were done.

RESULTS

TPT-SLNs have uniformly distributed particles with mean size in nanorange (174 nm) and IE of ~90%. TPT-SLNs-TRHS demonstrated suitable gelation properties upon administration into the rat's rectum. Moreover, drug release was exhibited in a control manner over an extended period of time for the incorporated TPT. Pharmacokinetic studies showed enhanced bioavailability of the TPT with improved plasma concentration and AUC. Further, it showed significantly enhanced antitumour effect in tumour-bearing mice as compared to the test formulations.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that SLNs incorporated in TRHS could be a potential source of the antitumour drug delivery with better control of the drug release and no toxicity.

Enhanced neuroprotective and antidepressant activity of curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers in lipopolysaccharide-induced depression and anxiety rat model

The present study aims to develop curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (CUR-NLCs) and investigate their neuroprotective effects in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depression and anxiety model. Nanotemplate engineering technique was used to prepare CUR-NLCs with Compritol 888 ATO and oleic acid as solid and liquid lipid, respectively. Poloxamer 188, Tween 80 and Span 80 were used as stabilizing agents for solid-liquid lipid core. The physicochemical parameters of CUR-NLCs were determined followed by in vitro drug release and in vivo neuroprotective activity in rats. The optimized CUR-NLCs demonstrated nanometric particle size of 147.8 nm, surface charge of -32.8 mV and incorporation efficiency of 91.0%. CUR-NLCs showed initial rapid followed by a sustained drug release reaching up to 73% after 24 h. CUR-NLCs significantly elevated struggling time and decreased immobility time in forced swim and tail suspension tests. A substantial increase in time spent and number of entries into the light and open compartments was observed in light-dark box and elevated plus maze models. CUR-NLCs improved the tissue architecture and suppressed the expression of p-NF-κB, TNF-α and COX-2 in brain tissues from histological and immunohistochemical analysis. CUR-NLCs improved the neuroprotective effect of curcumin and can be used as a potential therapeutics for depression and anxiety.

Nanotechnology based solutions for anti-leishmanial impediments: a detailed insight

As a neglected tropical disease, Leishmaniasis is significantly instigating morbidity and mortality across the globe. Its clinical spectrum varies from ulcerative cutaneous lesions to systemic immersion causing hyperthermic hepato-splenomegaly. Curbing leishmanial parasite is toughly attributable to the myriad obstacles in existing chemotherapy and immunization. Since the 1990s, extensive research has been conducted for ameliorating disease prognosis, by resolving certain obstacles of conventional therapeutics viz. poor efficacy, systemic toxicity, inadequate drug accumulation inside the macrophage, scarce antigenic presentation to body's immune cells, protracted length and cost of the treatment. Mentioned hurdles can be restricted by designing nano-drug delivery system (nano-DDS) of extant anti-leishmanials, phyto-nano-DDS, surface modified-mannosylated and thiolated nano-DDS. Likewise, antigen delivery with co-transportation of suitable adjuvants would be achievable through nano-vaccines. In the past decade, researchers have engineered nano-DDS to improve the safety profile of existing drugs by restricting their release parameters. Polymerically-derived nano-DDS were found as a suitable option for oral delivery as well as SLNs due to pharmacokinetic re-modeling of drugs. Mannosylated nano-DDS have upgraded macrophage internalizing of nanosystem and the entrapped drug, provided with minimal toxicity. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) was tackling by the utilization of nano-DDS designed for topical delivery including niosomes, liposomes, and transfersomes. Transfersomes, however, appears to be superior for this purpose. The nanotechnology-based solution to prevent parasitic resistance is the use of Thiolated drug-loaded and multiple drugs loaded nano-DDS. These surfaces amended nano-DDS possess augmented IC50 values in comparison to conventional drugs and un-modified nano-DDS. Phyto-nano-DDS, another obscure horizon, have also been evaluated for their anti-leishmanial response, however, more intense assessment is a prerequisite. Impoverished Cytotoxic T-cells response followed by Leishmanial antigen proteins delivery have also been vanquished using nano-adjuvants. The eminence of nano-DDS for curtailment of anti-leishmanial chemotherapy and immunization associated challenges are extensively summed up in this review. This expedited approach is ameliorating the Leishmaniasis management successfully. Alongside, total to partial eradication of this disease can be sought along with associated co-morbidities.

Particle and Gel Characterization of Irinotecan-Loaded Double-Reverse Thermosensitive Hydrogel

The irinotecan-loaded double-reverse thermosensitive hydrogel (DRTH) is a dispersed system of irinotecan-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) in a thermosensitive hydrogel. To optimise the particle and gel properties of DRTHs for rectal administration of irinotecan, SLNs and DRTHs were prepared with tricaprin, triethanolamine, Tween 80, and Span 20. Among the SLNs tested, an SLN composed of 1 g irinotecan, 0.5 g lipid mixture, and 0.5 g combined surfactant gave the highest entrapment efficiency and smallest particle size. A DRTH composed of (poloxamer 407/poloxamer 188/combined surfactant/SLN dispersion/H₂O (10/15/17/4/54%)) showed easy administration, fast gelling, and strong gel-forming in the body.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Benzimidazole Derivatives as Potential Neuroprotective Agents in an Ethanol-Induced Rodent Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most devastating and progressive neurodegenerative disease in middle to elder aged people, which can be exacerbated by lifestyle factors. Recent longitudinal studies demonstrated that alcohol consumption exacerbates memory impairments in adults. However, the underlying mechanism of alcohol-induced memory impairment is still elusive. The increased cellular manifestation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the production of numerous proinflammatory markers play a critical role in the neurodegeneration and pathogenesis of AD. Therefore, reducing neurodegeneration by decreasing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation may provide a potential therapeutic roadmap for the treatment of AD. In this study, eight new benzimidazole acetamide derivatives (FP1, FP2, FP5-FP10) were synthesized and characterized to investigate its neuroprotective effects in ethanol-induced neurodegeneration in a rat model. Further, three derivatives (FP1, FP7, and FP8) were selected for in vivo molecular analysis based on preliminary in vitro antioxidant screening assay. Molecular docking analysis was performed to assess the affinity of synthesized benzimidazole acetamide derivatives against selected proinflammatory targets (TNF-α, IL-6). Biochemical analysis revealed elevated expression of neuroinflammatory markers (TNF-α, NF-κB, IL-6, NLRP3), increased cellular oxidative stress, and reduced antioxidant enzymes in ethanol-exposed rats brain. Notably, pretreatment with new benzimidazole acetamide derivatives (FP1, FP7, and FP8) significantly modulated the ethanol-induced memory deficits, oxidative stress, and proinflammatory markers (TNF-α, NF-κB, IL-6, NLRP3) in the cortex. The multipurpose nature of acetamide containing benzimidazole nucleus and its versatile affinity toward numerous receptors highlight its multistep targeting potential. These results indicated the neuroprotective potential of benzimidazole acetamide derivatives (FP1, FP7, and FP8) as novel therapeutic candidates in ethanol-induced neurodegeneration which may partially be due to inhibition of the neuroinflammatory-oxidative stress vicious cycle.

Carveol a Naturally-Derived Potent and Emerging Nrf2 Activator Protects Against Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (N-acetyl p-aminophenol or APAP) is used worldwide for its antipyretic and anti-inflammatory potential. However, APAP overdose sometimes causes severe liver damage. In this study, we elucidated the protective effects of carveol in liver injury, using molecular and in silico approaches. Male BALB/c mice were divided into two experimental cohorts, to identify the best dose and to further assess the role of carveol in the nuclear factor E2-related factor; nuclear factor erythroid 2; p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. The results demonstrated that carveol significantly modulated the detrimental effects of APAP by boosting endogenous antioxidant mechanisms, such as nuclear translocation of Nrf2 gene, a master regulator of the downstream antioxidant machinery. Furthermore, an inhibitor of Nrf2, called all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), was used, which exaggerated APAP toxicity, in addition to abrogating the protective effects of carveol; this effect was accompanied by overexpression of inflammatory mediators and liver = 2ltoxicity biomarkers. To further support our notion, we performed virtual docking of carveol with Nrf2-keap1 target, and the resultant drug-protein interactions validated the in vivo findings. Together, our findings suggest that carveol could activate the endogenous master antioxidant Nrf2, which further regulates the expression of downstream antioxidants, eventually ameliorating the APAP-induced inflammation and oxidative stress.

Potential and Applications of Nanocarriers for Efficient Delivery of Biopharmaceuticals

During the past two decades, the clinical use of biopharmaceutical products has markedly increased because of their obvious advantages over conventional small-molecule drug products. These advantages include better specificity, potency, targeting abilities, and reduced side effects. Despite the substantial clinical and commercial success, the macromolecular structure and intrinsic instability of biopharmaceuticals make their formulation and administration challenging and render parenteral delivery as the only viable option in most cases. The use of nanocarriers for efficient delivery of biopharmaceuticals is essential due to their practical benefits such as protecting from degradation in a hostile physiological environment, enhancing plasma half-life and retention time, facilitating absorption through the epithelium, providing site-specific delivery, and improving access to intracellular targets. In the current review, we highlight the clinical and commercial success of biopharmaceuticals and the overall applications and potential of nanocarriers in biopharmaceuticals delivery. Effective applications of nanocarriers for biopharmaceuticals delivery via invasive and noninvasive routes (oral, pulmonary, nasal, and skin) are presented here. The presented data undoubtedly demonstrate the great potential of combining nanocarriers with biopharmaceuticals to improve healthcare products in the future clinical landscape. In conclusion, nanocarriers are promising delivery tool for the hormones, cytokines, nucleic acids, vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, and gene- and cell-based therapeutics for the treatment of multiple pathological conditions.

Development, in vitro and in vivo evaluation of miltefosine loaded nanostructured lipid carriers for the treatment of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

The purpose of this study was to enhance the anti-leishmanial efficacy of miltefosine (MTF) and reduce its toxic effects by loading it into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). Micro-emulsion technique was used to prepare MTF-loaded NLCs. The optimized NLCs were characterized in terms of various physicochemical parameters including particle size, poly dispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) technique. In vitro and in vivo assays were performed to evaluate the potential of NLCs as an effective nanocarrier system for oral delivery of MTF in Cutaneous Leishmaniasis. The optimized MTF-loaded NLCs exhibited mean particle size of 160.8 ± 5.3 nm with narrow PDI and high incorporation efficiency (IE%) of 96.17 ± 1.3%. MTF-loaded NLCs demonstrated slow release of the incorporated drug as compared to the drug solution. The optimized formulation showed significant decrease in hemolytic potential, 2.5~folds increase in anti-leishmanial efficacy and 6~fold decrease in macrophage cytotoxicity as compared to MTF solution, in vitro. Macrophage uptake study confirmed passive targeting ability of MTF-loaded NLCs. In-vivo analysis demonstrated enhanced anti-leishmanial effect of the MTF-loaded NLCs and better pharmacokinetic profiles with no gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity. NLCs are potential nanocarriers for the oral delivery of MTF with enhanced anti-leishmanial activity, better safety profile and reduced hemolytic potential.