Intolerance of uncertainty and post-traumatic stress symptoms: An investigation within a treatment seeking trauma-exposed sample

Acute Stress Symptoms, Intolerance of Uncertainty and Coping Strategies in Reaction to the October 7 War

BACKGROUND

On 7 October 2023, hundreds of armed Hamas fighters breached the security border fence and entered Israel from the Gaza Strip. More than 1400 Israeli citizens were murdered, and 239 individuals were kidnapped. Many Israeli citizens experienced these occurrences as psychologically traumatic events that caused stress and uncertainty.

OBJECTIVES

The present study aimed to examine the relationship between exposure to war (in more distant circles), intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and disengaged coping on acute stress symptoms (ASS). First, we examined whether exposure to war and IU were directly associated with ASS. Second, we tested the mediating role of disengaged coping in the relationship among war exposure, IU and ASS.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study involved 393 Israeli citizens. Participants answered questionnaires on exposure to war, IU, coping strategies and ASS.

RESULTS

The study results indicate that higher exposure and higher levels of IU were directly associated with more intensive ASS, and this association was partially mediated by higher use of disengaged coping strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals during wartime are at risk of experiencing high levels of ASS and developing ASD. However, degree of exposure to war alone was not associated with ASS, but it was related to personal resources and coping strategies.

Coping during socio-political uncertainty

Introduction

Well-being of young adults is known to be compromised in times of significant changes, such as economic and political turmoil. This study focuses on university students in Lebanon during one of the most prominent social unrests of its modern history to determine potential understudied protective factors that would predict the youth capacity to strive.

Methods

A sample of 489 university students were asked to fill an online survey including standardized questionnaires of wellbeing (WEMWBS), depression (PHQ-9), anxiety (HAM-A), intolerance of uncertainty (IUS-12), coping (Brief COPE) in addition to demographics and questions about their attitudes and future perspectives.

Results

We found increased rates of mental distress, predominantly in women, with around 80% of the sample being highly intolerant to the uncertainty climate. Results unsurprisingly show that well-being negatively correlated with anxiety, depression and intolerance of uncertainty. Overall, mental distress was found to mediate the relation between uncertainty and wellbeing, and the relation between maladaptive coping and wellbeing. Students who were intolerant of uncertainty and who used maladaptive coping strategies were more likely develop anxiety and depression and subsequently report poorer wellbeing. Conversely, having adaptive strategies was directly linked to higher well-being.

Discussion

In spite of increased distress, some university students managed to preserve their well-being within a climate of severe socio-political uprise. These findings suggest that modifying subjective experience of events and using soft skillset could alleviate young adults' emotional distress in unstable societies.

Relation among, trait anxiety, intolerance to uncertainty and early maltreatment experiences on fear discrimination learning and avoidance generalization online task

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Early aversive experiences, which have been associated with elevated anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty (IUS), may contribute negatively to fear conditioning learning. The aim of the present study was to analyze the relation among individual differences in childhood maltreatment experiences, trait anxiety, and IUS in adulthood; and to determine how these variables could affect fear learning discrimination and avoidance generalization.

METHODS

We adapted an avoidance procedure in an online fear learning task. Two pictures of different lamp colors (CS+) were first associated with two aversive images (US), while a third color was not (CS-). Next, clicking a button during one CS + could effectively avoid the US (CS + av), but not during the other (CS + unav). Finally, avoidance generalization was tested to lamp colors that were between CS- and CS + av (safety dimension) and CS + av and CS + unav (avoidability dimension). With a sample of 67 participants, we measured ratings of relief, expectancy, and anxiety, as well as button presses and individual differences (STAI, IUS and MAES).

RESULTS

Aversive early experiences were positively related to trait anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty. The results of the task further suggested that maltreatment experience contributes to be more attentive to aversive signals, which could be implicated in leading to difficulties in discrimination learning.

LIMITATIONS

Online experiments implies some loss of control over subjects and environment that can threaten internal validity. Likewise, the commitment of participants may be low.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that early aversive experience and anxiety could contribute to the development of IUS, which likely contributes to the development of avoidance behavior.

Transdiagnostic factors in symptoms of depression and post-traumatic stress: a systematic review

The current systematic review sought to identify quantitative empirical studies that focused on the transdiagnostic factors of intolerance of uncertainty, emotional dysregulation and rumination, and their relation with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The overall research aim was to examine the relationship between these transdiagnostic factors and their relation with depression and PTSD symptoms. The systematic review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Out of the 768 articles initially identified, 55 met the inclusion criteria for the current review. The results determined that intolerance of uncertainty is indirectly related to depression and PTSD symptoms, mainly through other factors including emotion dysregulation and rumination. Additionally, emotional dysregulation is a significant predictor of both depression and PTSD symptoms. Rumination is a robust factor related to depression and PTSD symptoms, this relationship was significant in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. This review provides evidence on the transdiagnostic factors of intolerance of uncertainty, emotional dysregulation and rumination in the relationship with depression and PTSD symptoms.

Transdiagnostic computations of uncertainty: towards a new lens on intolerance of uncertainty

People radically differ in how they cope with uncertainty. Clinical researchers describe a dispositional characteristic known as "intolerance of uncertainty", a tendency to find uncertainty aversive, reported to be elevated across psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions. Concurrently, recent research in computational psychiatry has leveraged theoretical work to characterise individual differences in uncertainty processing. Under this framework, differences in how people estimate different forms of uncertainty can contribute to mental health difficulties. In this review, we briefly outline the concept of intolerance of uncertainty within its clinical context, and we argue that the mechanisms underlying this construct may be further elucidated through modelling how individuals make inferences about uncertainty. We will review the evidence linking psychopathology to different computationally specified forms of uncertainty and consider how these findings might suggest distinct mechanistic routes towards intolerance of uncertainty. We also discuss the implications of this computational approach for behavioural and pharmacological interventions, as well as the importance of different cognitive domains and subjective experiences in studying uncertainty processing.

The Influence of Transdiagnostic Vulnerability Factors on PTSD Symptom Clusters in a Veteran Sample

BACKGROUND

There is continuing debate as to the latent structure underpinning posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology. The transdiagnostic vulnerability factors of negative affect, anxiety sensitivity (and subcomponents) and intolerance of uncertainty have previously demonstrated the ability to explain symptom clusters in a range of anxiety and depressive disorders, and may give further understanding of PTSD symptomatology.

METHOD

Within an Australian Defence Force veteran population, structural equation modeling is utilized to assess whether a hierarchical Original Model containing negative affect as the general cognitive factor, anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty as mid-level factors, can explain variability among posttraumatic stress disorder symptom clusters as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. A further hierarchical Anxiety Sensitivity Extended model consisting of the general cognitive factor of negative affect and the three sub-factors of anxiety sensitivity as mid-level factors was also tested upon PTSD symptom clusters.

RESULTS

Both the hierarchical Original and Anxiety Sensitivity Extended models fit the data well. Within both models, negative affect consistently showed significant direct effects upon the posttraumatic stress disorder symptom clusters. In the Original Model, anxiety sensitivity served as a significant mediator of negative affect for several symptom clusters, while intolerance of uncertainty was non-significant both as a direct effect and as a mediator of negative affect. In the Anxiety Sensitivity Extended Model, the cognitive concerns sub-factor of anxiety sensitivity served as a significant mediator of negative affect for several symptom clusters, while the social and physical concerns sub-factors did not have significant direct or mediating effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates a transdiagnostic hierarchical model significantly explains the severity of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition posttraumatic stress disorder symptom constructs within a subclinical population. Negative affect and anxiety sensitivity can each be targeted with specific interventions, suggesting new avenues to augment current gold standard psychotherapeutic interventions.

Intolerance of uncertainty, posttraumatic stress, depression, and fears for the future among displaced refugees

INTRODUCTION

The vast majority of the 100 million forcibly displaced persons worldwide live in a state of prolonged uncertainty with limited resettlement prospects and access to resources. Little is known, however, regarding how refugees and asylum-seekers cope with this uncertainty.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated the longitudinal association between a measure of how people cope with uncertainty (intolerance of uncertainty (IU)), fears for the future, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and depression symptoms. A sample of 1,237 refugees displaced in Indonesia completed an online survey in Arabic, Farsi, Dari, Somali or English at two time-points six-months apart.

RESULTS

Results indicated that greater IU-inhibitory anxiety (IU-IA or impairment related to uncertainty) was associated with subsequent increases in PTSD and depression symptoms and fears for the future. Greater PTSD symptoms and fears for the future were associated with increases in IU-prospective anxiety (IU-PA or distress related to uncertainty), and greater depression symptoms were associated with increases in IU-IA.

DISCUSSION

These findings provide evidence for the mechanistic role of IU in psychological symptoms amongst displaced refugees. Results underscore the importance of policies to reduce uncertainty in displacement environments, and highlight IU as a potential intervention target to help refugees cope with protracted displacement.

The traumatic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: the possible role of rumination and uncertainty

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused some traumatic injuries to individuals due to the isolation, loneliness, and uncertainty it has created. Ruminative thoughts and uncertain situations are known to affect trauma. It aimed to evaluate the traumatic effect of the pandemic based on the ruminative thoughts and intolerance of uncertainty in the study. The sample for the descriptive and cross-sectional study consisted of 402 participants. Data were collected by using the questionnaire form, the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Scale (PTSD), the Ruminative Reactions Scale (RRS), and the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS). A positive correlation was discovered between the PTSD mean scores of the study participants and their RRS and IUS scores (p < .05). Furthermore, RRS (β = 0.280) was identified as a variable that primarily affected PTSD (p < .05). It was concluded that both ruminative thoughts and intolerance of uncertainty were predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder in the COVID-19 pandemic. Considering the possible effects of the pandemic, it is recommended to reduce the intolerance to uncertainty, to rework the ruminative thought content with appropriate and effective methods, and to create some programs for gaining problem-solving skills.

Mental health impact on healthcare workers due to the COVID-19 pandemic: a U.S. cross-sectional survey study

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mental health and well-being of health care workers (HCWs). This study examined mental health outcomes and COVID-related stress impacts among a diverse sample of ambulatory HCWs, including clinicians and support staff, as well as the associations between mental health outcomes and work impairments in this population. Detailing these results can help in designing interventions to alleviate this burden.

Methods

“The Health Care Worker Stress Survey” was administered to ambulatory care providers and support staff at three multispecialty care delivery organizations as part of an online, cross-sectional study conducted between June 8, 2020, and July 13, 2020.

Results

The greatest stress impact reported by HCWs was the uncertainty regarding when the COVID-19 outbreak would be under control, while the least reported concern was about self-dying from COVID-19. Differences in COVID-19 stress impacts were observed by age, gender, and occupational risk factors. Approximately 50% of participants reported more than a minimal level of anxiety, including 22.5% who indicated moderate to severe levels of anxiety. Higher levels of anxiety were observed with younger ages and female gender, while occupational roles with increased exposure risk did not report higher levels of anxiety. Roughly two-thirds of the sample reported less than good sleep quality and one-third to one-half of the sample reported other sleep related problems that differed by age and gender. Role limitations due to emotional health correlated with COVID-19 related stress, anxiety and sleep problems.

Conclusions

Using established, validated measures, we quantified mental health outcomes within a diverse sample of ambulatory care HCWs during the pandemic. Younger and female HCWs reported greater anxiety burden; HCWs with higher occupational risk of COVID exposure did not report higher levels of anxiety. Notable proportions of HCWs reported sleep and work impairments. Due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, it is difficult to attribute these patterns to the pandemic. These results underscore the depth and extent of mental health outcomes in HCWs in ambulatory settings and raise important questions on new interventions to relieve that burden. Further research is needed to study specific interventions to support the mental health and wellbeing of HCWs.

Role of Traumatic Events and Motivational Structure in Ambiguity Tolerance of Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Background: The main purpose of this study was to delineate the role of motivational structure and traumatic events in the prediction of ambiguity tolerance in patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Methods: A total of 200 patients with the diagnosis of IBS, referred to the Shariati hospital in 2018, were enrolled using a correlational design and convenience sampling. All participants were asked to complete the ambiguity tolerance questionnaire, the life event checklist, and the personal concerns inventory. Data analysis was performed by Pearson correlation method and regression analysis test in SPSS software. Results: Findings showed that there was a significant relationship between traumatic events (r=- 0.66, P=0.01) and adaptive (r=0.24, P=0.01) and non-adaptive motivational structure (non-AMS) (r=- 0.10, P=0.01) with tolerance of ambiguity (P<0.05). With increasing non-AMS and with decreasing non-AMS and traumatic events, the tolerance of ambiguity is increased. Moreover, the motivational structure (adaptive and non-adaptive) and traumatic events could define and predict 43% of the variance in ambiguity tolerance. Conclusion: Thus, regarding the important role of motivational structure and traumatic events in predicting ambiguity tolerance in IBS patients, it is prudent to put emphasis on these measures to improve patients' overall health and probably alleviate symptoms and provide psychologic rehabilitation.

(Just Thinking of) Uncertainty Increases Intolerance of Uncertainty

Abstract. Intolerance of uncertainty is a far-reaching – yet not widely examined – construct with clinical and nonclinical associations. The current study implemented a brief reflection on uncertainty hypothesized to increase tolerance of uncertainty. The group who engaged in the reflection ( n = 50) was compared to an active control condition ( n = 50). Results demonstrated the opposite of the primary hypothesis: simply reflecting on uncertainty significantly increased intolerance of uncertainty (vs. tolerance of uncertainty). Results also demonstrated that those higher in mindfulness were higher in tolerance of uncertainty, with the “nonreactivity” factor of mindfulness contributing unique variance. These findings suggest multiple factors that might contribute to both tolerance and intolerance of uncertainty. This study indicates that investigations of interventions that include training in mindfulness and its component of nonreactivity might be particularly warranted.

Interrelation between intolerance of uncertainty and the time perspective profile in the military

BACKGROUND

Time perspective (TP) theory suggests that people tend to categorize their experience in terms of the past, the present, and the future. Studies have shown that a balanced TP profile supports well-being while misbalance in the TP profile is associated with various psychopathology. On the other hand, an intolerance of uncertainty (IU) underpins a variety of affective disorders. There are still a lot of questions about the relationship between IU and the TP. The purpose of this study was to clarify the interrelation between the time perspective distortion and intolerance of uncertainty level and to examine the degree to which IU and TP scales are associated with posttraumatic stress symptoms in a military sample.

PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

The sample of servicemen (N = 129) completed ZTPI, the IUS-12 and PCL-5 questionnaires. Correlational and regression analyses were conducted with IU scores, TP scales and DBTP and DBTP-r coefficients.

RESULTS

IU total score correlates with Past Negative (PN), Present Hedonistic (PH), Present Fatalistic (PF), and Future (F) time perspectives in the military sample. Groups that differ in the level of IU have a significant difference in Past Negative TP. Regression analysis models using DBTP as well as DBTP-r coefficients showed similar results. Inhibitory IU, not Prospective IU, turned out to be a predictor of post-traumatic stress symptoms in this military, non-clinical sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Further studies should determine directions of associations between intolerance of uncertainty and time perspective.

Changes in intolerance of uncertainty over the course of treatment predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in an inpatient sample

Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) is the inability to tolerate distress that arises in response to the absence of important information. The level of IU has been investigated across various psychological disorders; however, few studies have examined IU in trauma‐affected samples. We aimed to investigate the relationship between IU and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) across the course of treatment. Participants (n = 106) had a diagnosis of PTSD and were from first responder, military, and occupational injury backgrounds. Participants completed self‐report questionnaires pre‐ and post‐engagement in an inpatient group trauma‐informed psychoeducation and skills (TIPS) intervention. Regression analyses indicated that decreases in overall and inhibitory IU were associated with decreases in PTSD severity overall and at the symptom cluster level. However, prospective IU was only associated with changes in the re‐experiencing, avoidance, and arousal PTSD symptom clusters. Our findings are congruent with the nascent literature indicating that IU may be a maintaining factor for PTSD, suggesting clinical relevance for attendance to IU within the course of treatment.

Media Exposure to COVID-19 Predicted Acute Stress: A Moderated Mediation Model of Intolerance of Uncertainty and Perceived Social Support

Background: Previous studies have found that disaster-related media exposure could predict acute stress responses. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between media exposure to COVID-19 and acute stress, and less is known about the mechanisms that translate media exposure to COVID-19 into acute stress. The current study explored the impact of media exposure to COVID-19 on acute stress, and examined the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and the moderating role of perceived social support (PSS). Methods: A total of 1,483 Chinese participants (M age = 27.93 years, SD = 8.45) completed anonymous online questionnaires regarding media exposure to COVID-19, IU, PSS, and acute stress during the COVID-19 outbreak in China. Results: Media exposure to COVID-19 was positively related to acute stress, and IU partially mediated this relationship. The direct effect of media exposure to COVID-19 on acute stress, and the relationship between IU and acute stress, were both moderated by PSS. The impacts of both media exposure to COVID-19 and IU on acute stress were stronger for individuals with low PSS. Limitations: This study collected data in a shorter timeframe, and no assessments occurred during the follow-up, which may prevent us from detecting the changes of the relationships between variables over time. Meanwhile, the self-report method limited the validity of the data due to subjective reporting bias. Conclusions: These findings contribute to a better understanding of how and when pandemic-related media exposure affects acute stress, and provide new perspectives for the prevention to reduce psychological problems following traumatic events.

Neural Computations of Threat

A host of learning, memory, and decision-making processes form the individual's response to threat and may be disrupted in anxiety and post-trauma psychopathology. Here we review the neural computations of threat, from the first encounter with a dangerous situation, through learning, storing, and updating cues that predict it, to making decisions about the optimal course of action. The overview highlights the interconnected nature of these processes and their reliance on shared neural and computational mechanisms. We propose an integrative approach to the study of threat-related processes, in which specific computations are studied across the various stages of threat experience rather than in isolation. This approach can generate new insights about the evolution, diagnosis, and treatment of threat-related psychopathology.

Post-Traumatic Growth and Stress-Related Responses During the COVID-19 Pandemic in a National Representative Sample: The Role of Positive Core Beliefs About the World and Others

Given the need to understand both the negative and positive psychological consequences of the current global COVID-19 pandemic (Brewin et al. in Perspectives in Public Health 10.1177/1757913920957365 2020), the aim of this study was to test a cognitive model of post-traumatic symptoms (PTS) and post-traumatic growth (PTG) during confinement caused by the SARS-COV-2 epidemic. In line with cognitive models of trauma elaboration (Park in Psychological Bulletin 10.1037/a0018301), we included in our model some beliefs associated to the world (e.g., primal beliefs about a good world), to the self (e.g., death anxiety or orientation toward the future) and to others (e.g., suspiciousness or identification with humanity). To evaluate the explanatory model, a national representative sample of adults between the ages of 18 and 75 (N = 1951) was surveyed between 7th and 13th April, 2020, in the middle of a strict 7-week national confinement. Structural equation modelling yielded a very similar model to the one initially specified. The results highlight the role of both negative and positive core beliefs, which are pertinent to the current pandemic threat, in the appearance of PTS and PTG, respectively. In short, primal beliefs about a good world, openness to the future and identification with humanity were associated with PTG; while suspiciousness, intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety about death and also identification with humanity were associated with PTS and consequent impairment. This is an innovative study of different pathways to traumatic responses and growth during a pandemic. Future research is needed to replicate its findings.

Intolerance of Uncertainty Moderates the Association Between Potentially Morally Injurious Events and Suicide Ideation and Behavior Among Combat Veterans

Exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs) among combat veterans has been acknowledged as significant stressful combat events that may lead to mental health problems, including self-injurious thoughts and behavior (SITB). However, few studies have examined the risk and protective factors that can explain the conditions in which PMIEs may contribute to the development and maintenance of SITB. In the current study, we aimed to examine the association between PMIEs and SITB among combat veterans and explore the moderating roles of intolerance of uncertainty (IU) in this association. A volunteer sample of 191 Israeli combat veterans was recruited during 2017. Participants completed validated self-report questionnaires in a cross-sectional study. Results indicated that two separate measures of PMIEs, the Perceived Perpetration by Oneself and Others subscale of the Moral Injury Events Scale (MIES) and the Causes subscale of the Moral Injury Questionnaire (MIQ-Causes), were positively associated with higher levels of SITB. Moreover, beyond the contributions of reserve duty, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and depressive symptoms, MIQ-Causes scores significantly predicted current SITB. Importantly, under low and average levels of inhibitory IU, significant positive effects were revealed for the MIQ-Causes on current SITB, R² = .34. Although veterans exposed to PMIEs are more prone to SITB, even years after their release from military service, their IU may temper the link between experiences of PMIEs and SITB.

Intolerance of uncertainty and DSM-5 PTSD symptoms: Associations among a treatment seeking veteran sample

Intolerance of uncertainty (IU), defined as an inability to tolerate the unpleasant response triggered by the observed absence of information, has received increased empirical attention in recent years. The contribution of this cognitive behavioral construct to the etiology and maintenance of various anxiety disorders has become increasingly recognized. However, the relationship between IU and other affective disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), remains largely unexplored. The current study sought to examine the relationship between IU and overall PTSD symptom and cluster severity using an outpatient sample of veterans (N = 116) assessed using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth edition (DSM-5) PTSD symptom structure. Results revealed that IU was significantly associated with overall PTSD symptom severity, above and beyond relevant covariates. Further, IU was significantly associated with the PTSD avoidance and hyperarousal clusters. Prospective IU, rather than inhibitory IU, accounted for these unique associations. These findings add to a growing body of literature establishing IU as a transdiagnostic risk factor and point to the importance of future research on the role of IU in contributing to and/or maintaining PTSD symptoms.

Concerns for Older Adult Patients with Acute Hip Fracture

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to identify concerns among older adult patients with acute hip fracture.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was performed with 152 consecutive patients with hip fracture. Details were obtained on perioperative concerns about hip fracture using a questionnaire that was specifically designed for this study and was administered face to face upon admission. The study inclusion criteria were age older than 65 years and having experienced femur neck, intertrochanteric, or subtrochanteric fracture. The exclusion criteria were not understanding the study purpose, having difficulty communicating, or refusing to participate.

RESULTS

Older adult patients with acute hip fracture expressed concerns regarding excessive pain, medical staff, postoperative recovery, rehabilitation, and hospital expenses. In addition, fear of falling from the bed and anxiety regarding re-fracture were the patients' most significant concerns.

CONCLUSION

Older adult patients reported fear of falling from bed and re-fracture as primary concerns. To overcome these concerns, fracture liaison services to prevent re-fracture should be introduced and enforced.

Intolerance of Uncertainty Mediates Symptoms of PTSD and Depression in African American Veterans With Comorbid PTSD and Substance Use Disorders

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a major health concern among veterans, specifically African American veterans, and is commonly comorbid with other negative mental health outcomes including substance use disorders (SUD) and symptoms of depression. The current study examined intolerance of uncertainty as a mediator of the relationship between PTSD and depression symptoms in a sample of African American veterans with a dual diagnosis of PTSD and SUD. Participants included 113 African American veterans who were in treatment for PTSD and SUD at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center. Five mediation analyses were conducted to examine the mediational effect of intolerance of uncertainty on the relationship between PTSD symptom clusters (i.e., total, hyperarousal, numbness, avoidance, and intrusion) and depression symptoms. Findings indicated that intolerance of uncertainty mediated the relationship between four of the five mediation models (i.e., total symptoms, hyperarousal, numbness, and intrusion). These results imply that for African American veterans, higher levels of certain PTSD symptoms were associated with higher levels of intolerance of uncertainty, which in turn were related to increased levels of depression symptoms.