Reconciling competence and transcriptional hierarchies with stochasticity in retinal lineages

Time to see: How temporal identity factors specify the developing mammalian retina

Understanding how retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) give rise to the variety of neural cell types of the retina has been a question of major interest over the last few decades. While environmental cues and transcription factor networks have been shown to control specific cell fate decisions, how RPCs alter fate output over time to control proper histogenesis remains poorly understood. In recent years, the identification of "temporal identity factors (TIFs)", which control RPC competence states to ensure that the right cell types are produced at the right time, has contributed to increasing our understanding of temporal patterning in the retina. Here, we review the different TIFs identified to date in the mammalian retina and discuss the underlying mechanisms by which they are thought to operate. We conclude by speculating on how identification of temporal patterning mechanisms might support the development of new therapeutic approaches against visual impairments.

Timed Notch Inhibition Drives Photoreceptor Fate Specification in Human Retinal Organoids

Purpose

Transplanting photoreceptors from human pluripotent stem cell–derived retinal organoids have the potential to reverse vision loss in affected individuals. However, transplantable photoreceptors are only a subset of all cells in the organoids. Hence, the goal of our current study was to accelerate and synchronize photoreceptor differentiation in retinal organoids by inhibiting the Notch signaling pathway at different developmental time-points using a small molecule, PF-03084014 (PF).

Methods

Human induced pluripotent stem cell– and human embryonic stem cells–derived retinal organoids were treated with 10 µM PF for 3 days starting at day 45 (D45), D60, D90, and D120 of differentiation. Organoids were collected at post-treatment days 14, 28, and 42 and analyzed for progenitor and photoreceptor markers and Notch pathway inhibition by immunohistochemistry (IHC), quantitative PCR, and bulk RNA sequencing (n = 3–5 organoids from three independent experiments).

Results

Retinal organoids collected after treatment showed a decrease in progenitor markers (KI67, VSX2, PAX6, and LHX2) and an increase in differentiated pan-photoreceptor markers (OTX2, CRX, and RCVRN) at all organoid stages except D120. PF-treated organoids at D45 and D60 exhibited an increase in cone photoreceptor markers (RXRG and ARR3). PF treatment at D90 revealed an increase in cone and rod photoreceptors markers (ARR3, NRL, and NR2E3). Bulk RNA sequencing analysis mirrored the immunohistochemistry data and quantitative PCR confirmed Notch effector inhibition.

Conclusions

Timing the Notch pathway inhibition in human retinal organoids to align with progenitor competency stages can yield an enriched population of early cone or rod photoreceptors.

Banp regulates DNA damage response and chromosome segregation during the cell cycle in zebrafish retina

Btg3-associated nuclear protein (Banp) was originally identified as a nuclear matrix-associated region (MAR)-binding protein and it functions as a tumor suppressor. At the molecular level, Banp regulates transcription of metabolic genes via a CGCG-containing motif called the Banp motif. However, its physiological roles in embryonic development are unknown. Here, we report that Banp is indispensable for the DNA damage response and chromosome segregation during mitosis. Zebrafish banp mutants show mitotic cell accumulation and apoptosis in developing retina. We found that DNA replication stress and tp53-dependent DNA damage responses were activated to induce apoptosis in banp mutants, suggesting that Banp is required for regulation of DNA replication and DNA damage repair. Furthermore, consistent with mitotic cell accumulation, chromosome segregation was not smoothly processed from prometaphase to anaphase in banp morphants, leading to a prolonged M-phase. Our RNA- and ATAC-sequencing identified 31 candidates for direct Banp target genes that carry the Banp motif. Interestingly, a DNA replication fork regulator, wrnip1, and two chromosome segregation regulators, cenpt and ncapg, are included in this list. Thus, Banp directly regulates transcription of wrnip1 for recovery from DNA replication stress, and cenpt and ncapg for chromosome segregation during mitosis. Our findings provide the first in vivo evidence that Banp is required for cell-cycle progression and cell survival by regulating DNA damage responses and chromosome segregation during mitosis.

In order for a cell to divide, it must progress through a series of carefully controlled steps known as the cell cycle. First, the cell replicates its DNA and both copies get segregated to opposite ends. The cell then splits into two and each new cell receives a copy of the duplicated genetic material. If any of the stages in the cell cycle become disrupted or mis-regulated this can lead to uncontrolled divisions that may result in cancer.

Researchers have often used a structure within the eye known as the retina to study the cell cycle in zebrafish and other animals as cells in the retina rapidly divide in a highly controlled manner. A protein called Banp is known to help stop tumors from growing in humans and mice, but its normal role in the body, particularly the cell cycle, has remained unclear. To investigate, Babu et al. studied the retina of mutant zebrafish that were unable to make the Banp protein.

The experiments revealed that two stress responses indicating DNA damage or defects in copying DNA were active in the retinal cells of the mutant zebrafish. This suggested that Banp allows cell to progress through the cell cycle by repairing any DNA damage that may arise during replication. Banp does this by activating the gene for another protein called Wrnip1. Babu et al. also found that Banp helps segregate the two copies of DNA during cell division by promoting the activation of two other proteins called Cenpt and Ncapg. Further experiments identified 31 genes that were directly regulated by Banp.

These findings demonstrate that Banp is required for zebrafish cells to be able to accurately copy their DNA and divide in to two new cells. In the future, the work of Babu et al. will provide a useful resource to investigate how tumors grow and spread around the body, and may contribute to the development of new treatments for cancer.

An enhancer located in a Pde6c intron drives transient expression in the cone photoreceptors of developing mouse and human retinas

How cone photoreceptors are formed during retinal development is only partially known. This is in part because we do not fully understand the gene regulatory network responsible for cone genesis. We reasoned that cis-regulatory elements (enhancers) active in nascent cones would be regulated by the same upstream network that controls cone formation. To dissect this network, we searched for enhancers active in developing cones. By electroporating enhancer-driven fluorescent reporter plasmids, we observed that a sequence within an intron of the cone-specific Pde6c gene acted as an enhancer in developing mouse cones. Similar fluorescent reporter plasmids were used to generate stable transgenic human induced pluripotent stem cells that were then grown into three-dimensional human retinal organoids. These organoids contained fluorescently labeled cones, demonstrating that the Pde6c enhancer was also active in human cones. We observed that enhancer activity was transient and labeled a minor population of developing rod photoreceptors in both mouse and human systems. This cone-enriched pattern argues that the Pde6c enhancer is activated in cells poised between rod and cone fates. Additionally, it suggests that the Pde6c enhancer is activated by the same regulatory network that selects or stabilizes cone fate choice. To further understand this regulatory network, we identified essential enhancer sequence regions through a series of mutagenesis experiments. This suggested that the Pde6c enhancer was regulated by transcription factor binding at five or more locations. Binding site predictions implicated transcription factor families known to control photoreceptor formation and families not previously associated with cone development. These results provide a framework for deciphering the gene regulatory network that controls cone genesis in both human and mouse systems. Our new transgenic human stem cell lines provide a tool for determining which cone developmental mechanisms are shared and distinct between mice and humans.

Self-Organization of the Retina during Eye Development, Retinal Regeneration In Vivo, and in Retinal 3D Organoids In Vitro

Self-organization is a process that ensures histogenesis of the eye retina. This highly intricate phenomenon is not sufficiently studied due to its biological complexity and genetic heterogeneity. The review aims to summarize the existing central theories and ideas for a better understanding of retinal self-organization, as well as to address various practical problems of retinal biomedicine. The phenomenon of self-organization is discussed in the spatiotemporal context and illustrated by key findings during vertebrate retina development in vivo and retinal regeneration in amphibians in situ. Described also are histotypic 3D structures obtained from the disaggregated retinal progenitor cells of birds and retinal 3D organoids derived from the mouse and human pluripotent stem cells. The review highlights integral parts of retinal development in these conditions. On the cellular level, these include competence, differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, cooperative movements, and migration. On the physical level, the focus is on the mechanical properties of cell- and cell layer-derived forces and on the molecular level on factors responsible for gene regulation, such as transcription factors, signaling molecules, and epigenetic changes. Finally, the self-organization phenomenon is discussed as a basis for the production of retinal organoids, a promising model for a wide range of basic scientific and medical applications.

Deciphering the Retinal Epigenome during Development, Disease and Reprogramming: Advancements, Challenges and Perspectives

Retinal neurogenesis is driven by concerted actions of transcription factors, some of which are expressed in a continuum and across several cell subtypes throughout development. While seemingly redundant, many factors diversify their regulatory outcome on gene expression, by coordinating variations in chromatin landscapes to drive divergent retinal specification programs. Recent studies have furthered the understanding of the epigenetic contribution to the progression of age-related macular degeneration, a leading cause of blindness in the elderly. The knowledge of the epigenomic mechanisms that control the acquisition and stabilization of retinal cell fates and are evoked upon damage, holds the potential for the treatment of retinal degeneration. Herein, this review presents the state-of-the-art approaches to investigate the retinal epigenome during development, disease, and reprogramming. A pipeline is then reviewed to functionally interrogate the epigenetic and transcriptional networks underlying cell fate specification, relying on a truly unbiased screening of open chromatin states. The related work proposes an inferential model to identify gene regulatory networks, features the first footprinting analysis and the first tentative, systematic query of candidate pioneer factors in the retina ever conducted in any model organism, leading to the identification of previously uncharacterized master regulators of retinal cell identity, such as the nuclear factor I, NFI. This pipeline is virtually applicable to the study of genetic programs and candidate pioneer factors in any developmental context. Finally, challenges and limitations intrinsic to the current next-generation sequencing techniques are discussed, as well as recent advances in super-resolution imaging, enabling spatio-temporal resolution of the genome.

Diversification of multipotential postmitotic mouse retinal ganglion cell precursors into discrete types

The genesis of broad neuronal classes from multipotential neural progenitor cells has been extensively studied, but less is known about the diversification of a single neuronal class into multiple types. We used single-cell RNA-seq to study how newly born (postmitotic) mouse retinal ganglion cell (RGC) precursors diversify into ~45 discrete types. Computational analysis provides evidence that RGC transcriptomic type identity is not specified at mitotic exit, but acquired by gradual, asynchronous restriction of postmitotic multipotential precursors. Some types are not identifiable until a week after they are generated. Immature RGCs may be specified to project ipsilaterally or contralaterally to the rest of the brain before their type identity emerges. Optimal transport inference identifies groups of RGC precursors with largely nonoverlapping fates, distinguished by selectively expressed transcription factors that could act as fate determinants. Our study provides a framework for investigating the molecular diversification of discrete types within a neuronal class.

Lineages of embryonic stem cells show non-Markovian state transitions

Pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs) constitute the cell types of the adult vertebrate through a series of developmental state transitions. These states can be defined by expression levels of marker genes, such as Nanog and Sox2. In culture, ESCs reversibly transition between states. However, whether ESCs retain memory of their previous states or transition in a memoryless (Markovian) process remains relatively unknown. Here, we show some highly dynamic lineages of ESCs do not exhibit the Markovian property: their previous states and kin relations influence future choices. Unexpectedly, the distribution of lineages across their composition between states is constant over time, contrasting with the predictions of a Markov model. Additionally, highly dynamic ESC lineages show skewed cell fate distributions after retinoic acid differentiation. Together, these data suggest ESC lineage is an important variable governing future cell states, with implications for stem cell function and development.

On the Generation and Regeneration of Retinal Ganglion Cells

Retinal development follows a conserved neurogenic program in vertebrates to orchestrate the generation of specific cell types from multipotent progenitors in sequential but overlapping waves. In this program, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are the first cell type generated. RGCs are the final output neurons of the retina and are essential for vision and circadian rhythm. Key molecular steps have been defined in multiple vertebrate species to regulate competence, specification, and terminal differentiation of this cell type. This involves neuronal-specific transcription factor networks, regulators of chromatin dynamics and miRNAs. In mammals, RGCs and their optic nerve axons undergo neurodegeneration and loss in glaucoma and other optic neuropathies, resulting in irreversible vision loss. The incapacity of RGCs and axons to regenerate reinforces the need for the design of efficient RGC replacement strategies. Here we describe the essential molecular pathways for the differentiation of RGCs in vertebrates, as well as experimental manipulations that extend the competence window for generation of this early cell type from late progenitors. We discuss recent advances in regeneration of retinal neurons in vivo in both mouse and zebrafish and discuss possible strategies and barriers to achieving RGC regeneration as a therapeutic approach for vision restoration in blinding diseases such as glaucoma.

Simultaneous deletion of Prdm1 and Vsx2 enhancers in the retina alters photoreceptor and bipolar cell fate specification, yet differs from deleting both genes

The transcription factor OTX2 is required for photoreceptor and bipolar cell formation in the retina. It directly activates the transcription factors Prdm1 and Vsx2 through cell type-specific enhancers. PRDM1 and VSX2 work in opposition, such that PRDM1 promotes photoreceptor fate and VSX2 bipolar cell fate. To determine how OTX2+ cell fates are regulated in mice, we deleted Prdm1 and Vsx2 or their cell type-specific enhancers simultaneously using a CRISPR/Cas9 in vivo retina electroporation strategy. Double gene or enhancer targeting effectively removed PRDM1 and VSX2 protein expression. However, double enhancer targeting favored bipolar fate outcomes, whereas double gene targeting favored photoreceptor fate. Both conditions generated excess amacrine cells. Combined, these fate changes suggest that photoreceptors are a default fate outcome in OTX2+ cells and that VSX2 must be present in a narrow temporal window to drive bipolar cell formation. Prdm1 and Vsx2 also appear to redundantly restrict the competence of OTX2+ cells, preventing amacrine cell formation. By taking a combinatorial deletion approach of both coding sequences and enhancers, our work provides new insights into the complex regulatory mechanisms that control cell fate choice.

Conditional and biased regeneration of cone photoreceptor types in the zebrafish retina

A major challenge in regenerative medicine is replacing cells lost through injury or disease. While significant progress has been made, much remains unknown about the accuracy of native regenerative programs in cell replacement. Here, we capitalized on the regenerative capacity and stereotypic retinal organization of zebrafish to determine the specificity with which retinal Müller glial cells replace lost neuronal cell types. By utilizing a targeted genetic ablation technique, we restricted death to all or to distinct cone photoreceptor types (red, blue, or UV-sensitive cones), enabling us to compare the composition of cones that are regenerated. We found that Müller glia produce cones of all types upon nondiscriminate ablation of these photoreceptors, or upon selective ablation of red or UV cones. Pan-ablation of cones led to regeneration of the various cone types in relative abundances that resembled those of nonablated controls, that is, red > green > UV ~ blue cones. Moreover, selective loss of red or UV cones biased production toward the cone type that was ablated. In contrast, ablation of blue cones alone largely failed to induce cone production at all, although it did induce cell division in Müller glia. The failure to produce cones upon selective elimination of blue cones may be due to their low abundance compared to other cone types. Alternatively, it may be that blue cone death alone does not trigger a change in progenitor competency to support cone genesis. Our findings add to the growing notion that cell replacement during regeneration does not perfectly mimic programs of cell generation during development.

Neurogenesis and Specification of Retinal Ganglion Cells

Across all species, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are the first retinal neurons generated during development, followed by the other retinal cell types. How are retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) able to produce these cell types in a specific and timely order? Here, we will review the different models of retinal neurogenesis proposed over the last decades as well as the extrinsic and intrinsic factors controlling it. We will then focus on the molecular mechanisms, especially the cascade of transcription factors that regulate, more specifically, RGC fate. We will also comment on the recent discovery that the ciliary marginal zone is a new stem cell niche in mice contributing to retinal neurogenesis, especially to the generation of ipsilateral RGCs. Furthermore, RGCs are composed of many different subtypes that are anatomically, physiologically, functionally, and molecularly defined. We will summarize the different classifications of RGC subtypes and will recapitulate the specification of some of them and describe how a genetic disease such as albinism affects neurogenesis, resulting in profound visual deficits.

Deterministic fate assignment of Müller glia cells in the zebrafish retina suggests a clonal backbone during development

The optic cup houses multipotent retinal progenitor cells that proliferate and differentiate to form the mature retina, containing five main types of neurons and a single glial cell type, the Müller cell. Progenitors of the zebrafish optic cup generate clones that vary regarding the number and types of neurons, a process we previously showed could be described by stochastic models. Here, we present data indicating that each retinal progenitor cell, in the 24 hrs post‐fertilization optic cup, is predestined to form a single Müller cell. This striking fate assignment of Müller cells reveals a dual nature of retinal lineages where stochastic mechanisms produce variable numbers of neurons while there is a strong deterministic component governing the formation of glia cells. A possible mechanism for this stereotypic fate assignment could be the maintenance of a clonal backbone during retina development, which would be similar to invertebrate and rodent cortical neurogenesis.

Notch Signaling-Induced Oscillatory Gene Expression May Drive Neurogenesis in the Developing Retina

After integrating classic and cutting-edge research, we proposed a unified model that attempts to explain the key steps of mammalian retinal neurogenesis. We proposed that the Notch signaling-induced lateral inhibition mechanism promotes oscillatory expression of Hes1. Oscillating Hes1 inhibitory activity as a result leads to oscillatory expression of Notch signaling inhibitors, activators/inhibitors of retinal neuronal phenotypes, and cell cycle-promoting genes all within a retinal progenitor cell (RPC). We provided a mechanism explaining not only how oscillatory expression prevents the progenitor-to-precursor transition, but also how this transition happens. Our proposal of the mechanism posits that the levels of the above factors not only oscillate but also rise (with the exception of Hes1) as the factors accumulate within a progenitor. Depending on which factors accumulate fastest and reach the required supra-threshold levels (cell cycle activators or Notch signaling inhibitors), the progenitor either proliferates or begins to differentiate without any further proliferation when Notch signaling ceases. Thus, oscillatory gene expression may regulate an RPC's decision to proliferate or differentiate. Meanwhile, a post-mitotic precursor's selection of one retinal neuronal phenotype over many others depends on the expression level of key transcription factors (activators) required for each of these retinal neuronal phenotypes. Because the events described above are stochastic due to oscillatory gene expression and gene product inheritance from a mother RPC after its division, an RPC or precursor's decision requires the assignment of probabilities to specific outcomes in the selection process. While low and sustained (non-oscillatory) Notch signaling activity is required to promote the transition of retinal progenitors into various retinal neuronal phenotypes, we propose that the lateral inhibition mechanism, combined with high expression of the BMP signaling-induced Inhibitor of Differentiation (ID) protein family, promotes high and sustained (non-oscillatory) Hes1 and Hes5 expression. These events facilitate the transition of an RPC into the Müller glia (MG) phenotype at the late stage of retinal development.

Single-cell transcriptional logic of cell-fate specification and axon guidance in early-born retinal neurons

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), cone photoreceptors (cones), horizontal cells and amacrine cells are the first classes of neurons produced in the retina. However, an important question is how this diversity of cell states is transcriptionally produced. Here, we profiled 6067 single retinal cells to provide a comprehensive transcriptomic atlas showing the diversity of the early developing mouse retina. RNA velocities unveiled the dynamics of cell cycle coordination of early retinogenesis and define the transcriptional sequences at work during the hierarchical production of early cell-fate specification. We show that RGC maturation follows six waves of gene expression, with older-generated RGCs transcribing increasing amounts of guidance cues for young peripheral RGC axons that express the matching receptors. Spatial transcriptionally deduced features in subpopulations of RGCs allowed us to define novel molecular markers that are spatially restricted. Finally, the isolation of such a spatially restricted population, ipsilateral RGCs, allowed us to identify their molecular identity at the time they execute axon guidance decisions. Together, these data represent a valuable resource shedding light on transcription factor sequences and guidance cue dynamics during mouse retinal development.

Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Approaches to Explore and Treat Optic Neuropathies

Sight is a major sense for human and visual impairment profoundly affects quality of life, especially retinal degenerative diseases which are the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. As for other neurodegenerative disorders, almost all retinal dystrophies are characterized by the specific loss of one or two cell types, such as retinal ganglion cells, photoreceptor cells, or retinal pigmented epithelial cells. This feature is a critical point when dealing with cell replacement strategies considering that the preservation of other cell types and retinal circuitry is a prerequisite. Retinal ganglion cells are particularly vulnerable to degenerative process and glaucoma, the most common optic neuropathy, is a frequent retinal dystrophy. Cell replacement has been proposed as a potential approach to take on the challenge of visual restoration, but its application to optic neuropathies is particularly challenging. Many obstacles need to be overcome before any clinical application. Beyond their survival and differentiation, engrafted cells have to reconnect with both upstream synaptic retinal cell partners and specific targets in the brain. To date, reconnection of retinal ganglion cells with distal central targets appears unrealistic since central nervous system is refractory to regenerative processes. Significant progress on the understanding of molecular mechanisms that prevent central nervous system regeneration offer hope to overcome this obstacle in the future. At the same time, emergence of reprogramming of human somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells has facilitated both the generation of new source of cells with therapeutic potential and the development of innovative methods for the generation of transplantable cells. In this review, we discuss the feasibility of stem cell-based strategies applied to retinal ganglion cells and optic nerve impairment. We present the different strategies for the generation, characterization and the delivery of transplantable retinal ganglion cells derived from pluripotent stem cells. The relevance of pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal organoid and retinal ganglion cells for disease modeling or drug screening will be also introduced in the context of optic neuropathies.

Radial Glial Lineage Progression and Differential Intermediate Progenitor Amplification Underlie Striatal Compartments and Circuit Organization

The circuitry of the striatum is characterized by two organizational plans: the division into striosome and matrix compartments, thought to mediate evaluation and action, and the direct and indirect pathways, thought to promote or suppress behavior. The developmental origins of these organizations and their developmental relationships are unknown, leaving a conceptual gap in understanding the cortico-basal ganglia system. Through genetic fate mapping, we demonstrate that striosome-matrix compartmentalization arises from a lineage program embedded in lateral ganglionic eminence radial glial progenitors mediating neurogenesis through two distinct types of intermediate progenitors (IPs). The early phase of this program produces striosomal spiny projection neurons (SPNs) through fate-restricted apical IPs (aIPSs) with limited capacity; the late phase produces matrix SPNs through fate-restricted basal IPs (bIPMs) with expanded capacity. Notably, direct and indirect pathway SPNs arise within both aIPS and bIPM pools, suggesting that striosome-matrix architecture is the fundamental organizational plan of basal ganglia circuitry.

Requirement of the Mowat-Wilson Syndrome Gene Zeb2 in the Differentiation and Maintenance of Non-photoreceptor Cell Types During Retinal Development

Mutations in the human transcription factor gene ZEB2 cause Mowat-Wilson syndrome, a congenital disorder characterized by multiple and variable anomalies including microcephaly, Hirschsprung disease, intellectual disability, epilepsy, microphthalmia, retinal coloboma, and/or optic nerve hypoplasia. Zeb2 in mice is involved in patterning neural and lens epithelia, neural tube closure, as well as in the specification, differentiation and migration of neural crest cells and cortical neurons. At present, it is still unclear how Zeb2 mutations cause retinal coloboma, whether Zeb2 inactivation results in retinal degeneration, and whether Zeb2 is sufficient to promote the differentiation of different retinal cell types. Here, we show that during mouse retinal development, Zeb2 is expressed transiently in early retinal progenitors and in all non-photoreceptor cell types including bipolar, amacrine, horizontal, ganglion, and Müller glial cells. Its retina-specific ablation causes severe loss of all non-photoreceptor cell types, cell fate switch to photoreceptors by retinal progenitors, and elevated apoptosis, which lead to age-dependent retinal degeneration, optic nerve hypoplasia, synaptic connection defects, and impaired ERG (electroretinogram) responses. Moreover, overexpression of Zeb2 is sufficient to promote the fate of all non-photoreceptor cell types at the expense of photoreceptors. Together, our data not only suggest that Zeb2 is both necessary and sufficient for the differentiation of non-photoreceptor cell types while simultaneously inhibiting the photoreceptor cell fate by repressing transcription factor genes involved in photoreceptor specification and differentiation, but also reveal a necessity of Zeb2 in the long-term maintenance of retinal cell types. This work helps to decipher the etiology of retinal atrophy associated with Mowat-Wilson syndrome and hence will impact on clinical diagnosis and management of the patients suffering from this syndrome.

Dynamic Tissue Rearrangements during Vertebrate Eye Morphogenesis: Insights from Fish Models

Over the last thirty years, fish models, such as the zebrafish and medaka, have become essential to pursue developmental studies and model human disease. Community efforts have led to the generation of wide collections of mutants, a complete sequence of their genomes, and the development of sophisticated genetic tools, enabling the manipulation of gene activity and labelling and tracking of specific groups of cells during embryonic development. When combined with the accessibility and optical clarity of fish embryos, these approaches have made of them an unbeatable model to monitor developmental processes in vivo and in real time. Over the last few years, live-imaging studies in fish have provided fascinating insights into tissue morphogenesis and organogenesis. This review will illustrate the advantages of fish models to pursue morphogenetic studies by highlighting the findings that, in the last decade, have transformed our understanding of eye morphogenesis.

Prdm13 forms a feedback loop with Ptf1a and is required for glycinergic amacrine cell genesis in the Xenopus Retina

Background

Amacrine interneurons that modulate synaptic plasticity between bipolar and ganglion cells constitute the most diverse cell type in the retina. Most are inhibitory neurons using either GABA or glycine as neurotransmitters. Although several transcription factors involved in amacrine cell fate determination have been identified, mechanisms underlying amacrine cell subtype specification remain to be further understood. The Prdm13 histone methyltransferase encoding gene is a target of the transcription factor Ptf1a, an essential regulator of inhibitory neuron cell fate in the retina. Here, we have deepened our knowledge on its interaction with Ptf1a and investigated its role in amacrine cell subtype determination in the developing Xenopus retina.

Methods

We performed prdm13 gain and loss of function in Xenopus and assessed the impact on retinal cell fate determination using RT-qPCR, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry.

Results

We found that prdm13 in the amphibian Xenopus is expressed in few retinal progenitors and in about 40% of mature amacrine cells, predominantly in glycinergic ones. Clonal analysis in the retina reveals that prdm13 overexpression favours amacrine cell fate determination, with a bias towards glycinergic cells. Conversely, knockdown of prdm13 specifically inhibits glycinergic amacrine cell genesis. We also showed that, as in the neural tube, prdm13 is subjected to a negative autoregulation in the retina. Our data suggest that this is likely due to its ability to repress the expression of its inducer, ptf1a.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that Prdm13, downstream of Ptf1a, acts as an important regulator of glycinergic amacrine subtype specification in the Xenopus retina. We also reveal that Prdm13 regulates ptf1a expression through a negative feedback loop.

Combinatorial regulation of a Blimp1 (Prdm1) enhancer in the mouse retina

The mouse retina comprises seven major cell types that exist in differing proportions. They are generated from multipotent progenitors in a stochastic manner, such that the relative frequency of any given type generated changes over time. The mechanisms determining the proportions of each cell type are only partially understood. Photoreceptors and bipolar interneurons are derived from cells that express Otx2. Within this population, Blimp1 (Prdm1) helps set the balance between photoreceptors and bipolar cells by suppressing bipolar identity in most of the cells. How only a subset of these Otx2+ cells decides to upregulate Blimp1 and adopt photoreceptor fate is unknown. To understand this, we investigated how Blimp1 transcription is regulated. We identified several potential Blimp1 retinal enhancer elements using DNase hypersensitivity sequencing. Only one of the elements recapitulated Blimp1 spatial and temporal expression in cultured explant assays and within the retinas of transgenic mice. Mutagenesis of this retinal Blimp1 enhancer element revealed four discrete sequences that were each required for its activity. These included highly conserved Otx2 and ROR (retinoic acid receptor related orphan receptor) binding sites. The other required sequences do not appear to be controlled by Otx2 or ROR factors, increasing the complexity of the Blimp1 gene regulatory network. Our results show that the intersection of three or more transcription factors is required to correctly regulate the spatial and temporal features of Blimp1 enhancer expression. This explains how Blimp1 expression can diverge from Otx2 and set the balance between photoreceptor and bipolar fates.

Temporal expression of CD184(CXCR4) and CD171(L1CAM) identifies distinct early developmental stages of human retinal ganglion cells in embryonic stem cell derived retina

Human retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) derived from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have anticipated value for human disease study, drug screening, and therapeutic applications; however, their full potential remains underdeveloped. To characterize RGCs in human embryonic stem cell (hESC) derived retinal organoids we examined RGC markers and surface antigen expression and made comparisons to human fetal retina. RGCs in both tissues exhibited CD184 and CD171 expression and distinct expression patterns of the RGC markers BRN3 and RBPMS. The retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) of retinal organoids expressed CD184, consistent with its expression in the neuroblastic layer in fetal retina. In retinal organoids CD184 expression was enhanced in RGC competent RPCs and high CD184 expression was retained on post-mitotic RGC precursors; CD171 was detected on maturing RGCs. The differential expression timing of CD184 and CD171 permits identification and enrichment of RGCs from retinal organoids at differing maturation states from committed progenitors to differentiating neurons. These observations will facilitate molecular characterization of PSC-derived RGCs during differentiation, critical knowledge for establishing the veracity of these in vitro produced cells. Furthermore, observations made in the retinal organoid model closely parallel those in human fetal retina further validating use of retinal organoid to model early retinal development.

Horizontal Cells, the Odd Ones Out in the Retina, Give Insights into Development and Disease

Thorough investigation of a neuronal population can help reveal key aspects regarding the nervous system and its development. The retinal horizontal cells have several extraordinary features making them particularly interesting for addressing questions regarding fate assignment and subtype specification. In this review we discuss and summarize data concerning the formation and diversity of horizontal cells, how morphology is correlated to molecular markers, and how fate assignment separates the horizontal lineage from the lineages of other retinal cell types. We discuss the novel and unique features of the final cell cycle of horizontal cell progenitors and how they may relate to retinoblastoma carcinogenesis.

Photoreceptor cell fate specification in vertebrates

Photoreceptors--the light-sensitive cells in the vertebrate retina--have been extremely well-characterized with regards to their biochemistry, cell biology and physiology. They therefore provide an excellent model for exploring the factors and mechanisms that drive neural progenitors into a differentiated cell fate in the nervous system. As a result, great progress in understanding the transcriptional network that controls photoreceptor specification and differentiation has been made over the last 20 years. This progress has also enabled the production of photoreceptors from pluripotent stem cells, thereby aiding the development of regenerative medical approaches to eye disease. In this Review, we outline the signaling and transcription factors that drive vertebrate photoreceptor development and discuss how these function together in gene regulatory networks to control photoreceptor cell fate specification.

miR-124-9-9* potentiates Ascl1-induced reprogramming of cultured Müller glia

The Müller glia of fish provide a source for neuronal regeneration after injury, but they do not do so in mammals. We previously showed that lentiviral gene transfer of the transcription factor Achaete-scute homolog 1 (Ascl1/Mash1) in murine Müller glia cultures resulted in partial reprogramming of the cells to retinal progenitors. The microRNAs (miRNAs) miR-124-9-9* facilitate neuronal reprogramming of fibroblasts, but their role in glia reprogramming has not been reported. The aim of this study was to test whether (1) lentiviral gene transfer of miR-124-9-9* can reprogram Müller glia into retinal neurons and (2) miR-124-9-9* can improve Ascl1-induced reprogramming. Primary Müller glia cultures were generated from postnatal day (P) 11/12 mice, transduced with lentiviral particles, i.e., miR-124-9-9*-RFP, nonsense-RFP, Ascl1-GFP, or GFP-control. Gene expression and immunofluorescence analyses were performed within 3 weeks after infection. 1. Overexpression of miR-124-9-9* induced the expression of the proneural factor Ascl1 and additional markers of neurons, including TUJ1 and MAP2. 2. When Ascl1 and miR-124-9-9* were combined, 50 to 60% of Müller glia underwent neuronal reprogramming, whereas Ascl1 alone results in a 30 to 35% reprogramming rate. 3. Analysis of the miR-124-9-9* treated glial cells showed a reduction in the level of Ctdsp1 and Ptbp1, indicating a critical role for the REST pathway in the repression of neuronal genes in Müller glia. Our data further suggest that miR-124-9-9* and the REST complex may play a role in regulating the reprogramming of Müller glia to progenitors that underlies retinal regeneration in zebrafish.

Stochasticity in the miR-9/Hes1 oscillatory network can account for clonal heterogeneity in the timing of differentiation

Recent studies suggest that cells make stochastic choices with respect to differentiation or division. However, the molecular mechanism underlying such stochasticity is unknown. We previously proposed that the timing of vertebrate neuronal differentiation is regulated by molecular oscillations of a transcriptional repressor, HES1, tuned by a post-transcriptional repressor, miR-9. Here, we computationally model the effects of intrinsic noise on the Hes1/miR-9 oscillator as a consequence of low molecular numbers of interacting species, determined experimentally. We report that increased stochasticity spreads the timing of differentiation in a population, such that initially equivalent cells differentiate over a period of time. Surprisingly, inherent stochasticity also increases the robustness of the progenitor state and lessens the impact of unequal, random distribution of molecules at cell division on the temporal spread of differentiation at the population level. This advantageous use of biological noise contrasts with the view that noise needs to be counteracted.

Aging Neural Progenitors Lose Competence to Respond to Mitogenic Notch Signaling

Drosophila neural stem cells (neuroblasts) are a powerful model system for investigating stem cell self-renewal, specification of temporal identity, and progressive restriction in competence. Notch signaling is a conserved cue that is an important determinant of cell fate in many contexts across animal development; for example, mammalian T cell differentiation in the thymus and neuroblast specification in Drosophila are both regulated by Notch signaling. However, Notch also functions as a mitogen, and constitutive Notch signaling potentiates T cell leukemia as well as Drosophila neuroblast tumors. While the role of Notch signaling has been studied in these and other cell types, it remains unclear how stem cells and progenitors change competence to respond to Notch over time. Notch is required in type II neuroblasts for normal development of their transit amplifying progeny, intermediate neural progenitors (INPs). Here, we find that aging INPs lose competence to respond to constitutively active Notch signaling. Moreover, we show that reducing the levels of the old INP temporal transcription factor Eyeless/Pax6 allows Notch signaling to promote the de-differentiation of INP progeny into ectopic INPs, thereby creating a proliferative mass of ectopic progenitors in the brain. These findings provide a new system for studying progenitor competence and identify a novel role for the conserved transcription factor Eyeless/Pax6 in blocking Notch signaling during development.

The Independent Probabilistic Firing of Transcription Factors: A Paradigm for Clonal Variability in the Zebrafish Retina

Early retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) in vertebrates produce lineages that vary greatly both in terms of cell number and fate composition, yet how this variability is achieved remains unknown. One possibility is that these RPCs are individually distinct and that each gives rise to a unique lineage. Another is that stochastic mechanisms play upon the determinative machinery of equipotent early RPCs to drive clonal variability. Here we show that a simple model, based on the independent firing of key fate-influencing transcription factors, can quantitatively account for the intrinsic clonal variance in the zebrafish retina and predict the distributions of neuronal cell types in clones where one or more of these fates are made unavailable.

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A simple quantitative model can explain clonal variability in the retina

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This model is based on the firing probabilities of key transcription factors

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These probabilities are shown to be largely independent of each other

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The environment has only a minor effect on these probabilities

VSX2 and ASCL1 Are Indicators of Neurogenic Competence in Human Retinal Progenitor Cultures

Three dimensional (3D) culture techniques are frequently used for CNS tissue modeling and organoid production, including generation of retina-like tissues. A proposed advantage of these 3D systems is their potential to more closely approximate in vivo cellular microenvironments, which could translate into improved manufacture and/or maintenance of neuronal populations. Visual System Homeobox 2 (VSX2) labels all multipotent retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) and is known to play important roles in retinal development. In contrast, the proneural transcription factor Acheate scute-like 1 (ASCL1) is expressed transiently in a subset of RPCs, but is required for the production of most retinal neurons. Therefore, we asked whether the presence of VSX2 and ASCL1 could gauge neurogenic potential in 3D retinal cultures derived from human prenatal tissue or ES cells (hESCs). Short term prenatal 3D retinal cultures displayed multiple characteristics of human RPCs (hRPCs) found in situ, including robust expression of VSX2. Upon initiation of hRPC differentiation, there was a small increase in co-labeling of VSX2+ cells with ASCL1, along with a modest increase in the number of PKCα+ neurons. However, 3D prenatal retinal cultures lost expression of VSX2 and ASCL1 over time while concurrently becoming refractory to neuronal differentiation. Conversely, 3D optic vesicles derived from hESCs (hESC-OVs) maintained a robust VSX2+ hRPC population that could spontaneously co-express ASCL1 and generate photoreceptors and other retinal neurons for an extended period of time. These results show that VSX2 and ASCL1 can serve as markers for neurogenic potential in cultured hRPCs. Furthermore, unlike hESC-OVs, maintenance of 3D structure does not independently convey an advantage in the culture of prenatal hRPCs, further illustrating differences in the survival and differentiation requirements of hRPCs extracted from native tissue vs. those generated entirely in vitro.

Genetic chimeras reveal the autonomy requirements for Vsx2 in embryonic retinal progenitor cells

BACKGROUND

Vertebrate retinal development is a complex process, requiring the specification and maintenance of retinal identity, proliferative expansion of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs), and their differentiation into retinal neurons and glia. The homeobox gene Vsx2 is expressed in RPCs and required for the proper execution of this retinal program. However, our understanding of the mechanisms by which Vsx2 does this is still rudimentary. To define the autonomy requirements for Vsx2 in the regulation of RPC properties, we generated chimeric mouse embryos comprised of wild-type and Vsx2-deficient cells.

RESULTS

We show that Vsx2 maintains retinal identity in part through the cell-autonomous repression of the retinal pigment epithelium determinant Mitf, and that Lhx2 is required cell autonomously for the ectopic Mitf expression in Vsx2-deficient cells. We also found significant cell-nonautonomous contributions to Vsx2-mediated regulation of RPC proliferation, pointing to an important role for Vsx2 in establishing a growth-promoting extracellular environment. Additionally, we report a cell-autonomous requirement for Vsx2 in controlling when neurogenesis is initiated, indicating that Vsx2 is an important mediator of neurogenic competence. Finally, the distribution of wild-type cells shifted away from RPCs and toward retinal ganglion cell precursors in patches of high Vsx2-deficient cell density to potentially compensate for the lack of fated precursors in these areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Through the generation and analysis of genetic chimeras, we demonstrate that Vsx2 utilizes both cell-autonomous and cell-nonautonomous mechanisms to regulate progenitor properties in the embryonic retina. Importantly, Vsx2's role in regulating Mitf is in part separable from its role in promoting proliferation, and proliferation is excluded as the intrinsic timer that determines when neurogenesis is initiated. These findings highlight the complexity of Vsx2 function during retinal development and provide a framework for identifying the molecular mechanisms mediating these functions.

Cell dynamics and gene expression control in tissue homeostasis and development

During tissue and organ development and maintenance, the dynamic regulation of cellular proliferation and differentiation allows cells to build highly elaborate structures. The development of the vertebrate retina or the maintenance of adult intestinal crypts, for instance, involves the arrangement of newly created cells with different phenotypes, the proportions of which need to be tightly controlled. While some of the basic principles underlying these processes developing and maintaining these organs are known, much remains to be learnt from how cells encode the necessary information and use it to attain those complex but reproducible arrangements. Here, we review the current knowledge on the principles underlying cell population dynamics during tissue development and homeostasis. In particular, we discuss how stochastic fate assignment, cell division, feedback control and cellular transition states interact during organ and tissue development and maintenance in multicellular organisms. We propose a framework, involving the existence of a transition state in which cells are more susceptible to signals that can affect their gene expression state and influence their cell fate decisions. This framework, which also applies to systems much more amenable to quantitative analysis like differentiating embryonic stem cells, links gene expression programmes with cell population dynamics.