Spontaneous mind-wandering tendencies linked to cognitive flexibility in young adults

[Coin tossing: Development of a computerized test to assess cognitive flexibility in older adults]

BACKGROUND

The aging population is increasing. Aging has been associated with some degree of cognitive decline, especially in functions such as cognitive flexibility. The voluntary task-switching paradigm is a novel model for studying this function. The aim of this work was to design and test a computerized instrument to assess cognitive flexibility with this paradigm.

METHODS

A non-probabilistic and intentional sample of individuals aged 60 and above (N=57; M=70; SD=7.5), 72% of whom were women, was utilized. A general cognitive screening test (ACE III) and the "Coin Tossing" task, a computerized program consisting of four levels of complexity, were administered.

RESULTS

A Wilcoxon test was used to contrast parity versus size responses (z(56)=-1.16, P=.24). To assess repetition bias, a Wilcoxon test was conducted between new and repeated responses (TR: z(56)=-1.81, P=.07 // Accuracy: z(56)=-6.33, P=.00). A repeated measures ANOVA was performed between reaction times before, during, and after a response change, F(1.02)=59.6, P<.01, η2=.937, B-1=1. And a repeated measures ANOVA between mean RTs per level, F(3)=7.92, P<.001, η2=.128, B-1=.98.

CONCLUSIONS

The test was designed with a progressive structure across levels. The theoretical assumptions of the paradigm were partially demonstrated, showing its utility for the assessment and training of cognitive flexibility.

The influence of reward and loss outcomes after free- and forced-tasks on voluntary task choice

In four experiments, we investigated the impact of outcomes and processing mode (free versus forced) on subsequent voluntary task-switching behavior. Participants freely chose between two tasks or were forced to perform one, and the feedback they received randomly varied after correct performance (reward or no-reward; loss or no-loss). In general, we reasoned that the most recently applied task goal is usually the most valued one, leading people to prefer task repetitions over switches. However, the task values might be additionally biased by previous outcomes and the previous processing mode. Indeed, negatively reinforcing tasks with no-reward or losses generally resulted in more subsequent switches. Additionally, participants demonstrated a stronger attachment to free- compared to forced-tasks, as indicated by more switches when the previous task was forced, suggesting that people generally value free over forced-choice task goals. Moreover, the reward manipulation had a greater influence on switching behavior following free- compared to forced-tasks in Exp. 1 and Exp. 3, suggesting a stronger emphasis on evaluating rewarding outcomes associated with free-task choices. However, this inflationary effect on task choice seemed to be limited to reward and situations where task choice and performance more strongly overlap. Specifically, there was no evidence that switching behavior was differentially influenced after free-and forced-task as a function of losses (Exp. 2) or reward when task choice and task performance were separated (Exp. 4). Overall, the results provide new insights into how the valuation of task goals based on choice freedom and outcome feedback can influence voluntary task choices.

Positively framing mind wandering does not increase mind wandering in older adults

Age-related differences in mind wandering are robust, with older adults reporting less mind wandering compared to younger adults. While several theories have been put forth to explain this difference, one view has received less attention than others. Specifically, age-related differences in mind wandering might occur because older adults are reluctant to report on their mind wandering. The aim of the current study was to explicitly test this hypothesis. Older and younger adults completed a go/no-go task with intermittent thought probes to assess mind wandering. In one condition, participants were provided with standard instructions about how to respond to questions about their thoughts. In a second condition, participants were provided with a positive framing of mind wandering. Mind wandering was assessed both subjectively (i.e., via thought probes) and objectively (i.e., using different behavioral measures from the go/no-go task). The results of the study suggest that positively framing mind wandering did not impact rates of mind wandering or objective indicators of mind wandering for older or younger adults. Older adults reported less mind wandering, regardless of condition, compared to younger adults. Older adults also had generally better performance on the go/no-go task compared to younger adults. Bayesian analyses suggested that the main effect of framing condition, although not significant in Frequentist terms, did provide moderate evidence of an overall effect on mind wandering rates. We interpret the results as evidence against the reluctance hypothesis, consistent with previous work.

Listen up, kids! How mind wandering affects immediate and delayed memory in children

Mind wandering occurs when attention becomes disengaged from the here-and-now and directed toward internally generated thoughts; this is often associated with poorer performance on educationally significant tasks. In this study, 8- to 9-year-old children (N = 60) listened to audio stories embedded with intermittent thought probes that were used to determine if participants' thoughts were on or off task. The key objective was to explore the impact of probe-caught mind wandering on both immediate and delayed memory retention. Children reported being off task approximately 24% of the time. Most inattention episodes were classified as task-unrelated thoughts (i.e., 'pure' instances of mind wandering, 9%) or attentional failures due to distractions (9%). Higher frequency of mind wandering was strongly associated with poorer memory recall, and task-unrelated thoughts strongly predicted how well children could recall components of the audio story both immediately after the task and after a 1-week delay. This study is the first to demonstrate the impact of mind wandering on delayed memory retention in children. Results suggest that exploring mind wandering in the foundational years of schooling could provide the necessary empirical foundation for the development of practical interventions geared toward detecting and refocusing lapses of attention in educational contexts.

Inside a child's mind: The relations between mind wandering and executive function across 8- to 12-year-olds

Mind wandering refers to attention oriented away from a current task to thoughts unrelated to the task, often resulting in poorer task performance. In adults, mind wandering is a common occurrence that is associated with the executive function facets of inhibitory control, working memory capacity, and task switching. In this study, we cross-sectionally examined whether the relation between mind wandering frequency and executive function changes across 8- to 12-year-old children. A total of 100 children completed three tasks targeting three facets of executive function. During each task, participants were occasionally prompted to report whether they were focused on the task or mind wandering. In examining the association between mind wandering frequency and executive function across the age range, we found a significant interaction between age and working memory capacity, such that it was negatively associated with mind wandering frequency only in 12-year-olds. This interaction with age was not significant for inhibitory control and task switching ability. Our results revealed differential relations between mind wandering and executive function facets, which vary with developmental stages. These findings highlight potential areas for targeted intervention to improve mind wandering regulation in children.

Reactive and proactive control processes in voluntary task choice

Deciding which task to perform when multiple tasks are available can be influenced by external influences in the environment. In the present study, we demonstrate that such external biases on task-choice behavior reflect reactive control adjustments instead of a failure in control to internally select a task goal. Specifically, in two experiments we delayed the onset of one of two task stimuli by a short (50 ms), medium (300 ms), or long (1,000 ms) stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) within blocks while also varying the relative frequencies of short versus long SOAs across blocks (i.e., short SOA frequent vs. long SOA frequent). Participants' task choices were increasingly biased towards selecting the task associated with the first stimulus with increasing SOAs. Critically, both experiments also revealed that the short-to-medium SOA bias was larger in blocks with more frequent long SOAs when participants had limited time to prepare for an upcoming trial. When time to select an upcoming task was extended in Experiment 2, this interaction was not significant, suggesting that the extent to which people rely on reactive control adjustments is additionally modulated by proactive control processes. Thus, the present findings also suggest that voluntary task choices are jointly guided by both proactive and reactive processes, which are likely to adjust the relative activation of different task goals in working memory.

Left superior parietal lobe mediates the link between spontaneous mind-wandering tendency and task-switching performance

While increasing studies have documented the link between mind wandering and task switching, less is known about which brain regions mediate this relationship. Using the MPI-Leipzig Mind-Brain-Body dataset (N = 173), we investigated the association between trait-level tendencies of mind wandering, task-switching performance, structural connectivity, and resting-state functional connectivity. At the behavioral level, we found that higher spontaneous mind-wandering trait scores were associated with shorter reaction times on both repeat and switch trials. The whole brain cortical thickness analysis revealed a strong mediating role of the left superior parietal lobe, which is part of the dorsal attention network, in the link between spontaneous mind-wandering tendency and task-switching performance. The resting-state functional connectivity analysis further demonstrated that this association was partly mediated by the negative dorsal attention network-default mode network functional connectivity. No significant mediating effects were found for deliberate mind-wandering tendency. Overall, the findings highlight the pivotal role of the left superior parietal lobe in activating new mental set during mind-wandering and task-switching processes, providing another evidence in favor of a role for switching in mind wandering.

Commonalities between mind wandering and task-set switching: An event-related potential study

Previous research has established that mind wandering does not necessarily disrupt one's task-switching performance. Here we investigated the effects of mind wandering on electrophysiological signatures, measured using event-related potentials (ERPs), during a switching task. In the current study, a final sample of 22 young adults performed a task-switching paradigm while electroencephalography was continuously recorded; mind wandering was assessed via thought probes at the end of each block. Consistent with previous research, we found no significant disruptive effects of mind wandering on task-switching performance. The ERP results showed that at the posterior electrode sites (P3, Pz, and P4), P3 amplitude was higher for mind-wandering switch trials than on-task switch trials, thus opposing the typical pattern of P3 attenuation during periods of mind wandering relative to on-task episodes. Considering that increased P3 amplitude during higher-order switch trials (e.g., response rule switching) may reflect the implementation of new higher-order task sets/rules, the current findings seem to indicate similar executive control processes underlie mind wandering and task-set switching, providing further evidence in favor of a role for switching in mind wandering.

The effect of mind wandering on cognitive flexibility is mediated by boredom

Cognitive theory of boredom presumes that boredom, an important potential indicator for self-dysregulation, represents to be the result of attention failure. And lapses of attention have been shown to act as a key signal in mind wandering (especially spontaneous mind wandering), which has been found to be positively associated with boredom. If both mind wandering and boredom concurrently occupy individuals' on-task processing resources, it would definitely influence their cognitive flexibility, which is an essential component for self-regulation. Until now, however, there has been little discussion about mind wandering, boredom, and cognitive flexibility at the same time. The present study investigated the hypothesis that boredom can mediate the effect of mind wandering on cognitive flexibility at trait-level by adopting a cross-sectional exploratory study design and anonymous structured questionnaires in three studies (N = 449,182 and 190 for Studies 1, 2 and 3, respectively). Correlation analysis demonstrated that mind wandering (especially spontaneous mind wandering) was positively related to boredom, and that cognitive flexibility was negatively related to mind wandering and boredom, respectively. Mediation analysis revealed an indirect effect of mind wandering (especially spontaneous mind wandering) on cognitive flexibility through boredom. In conclusion, these findings are useful to build a theoretical framework for future clinical practice. An implication of these findings is the possibility that efficacious strategies targeting at reducing boredom are needed to decrease the detriment effect of spontaneous mind wandering on cognitive flexibility.