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Liu Y, Wang Y, Xin JH. Capillarity in Interfacial Liquids and Marbles: Mechanisms, Properties, and Applications. Molecules 2024; 29:2986. [PMID: 38998938 PMCID: PMC11243323 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29132986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanics of capillary force in biological systems have critical roles in the formation of the intra- and inter-cellular structures, which may mediate the organization, morphogenesis, and homeostasis of biomolecular condensates. Current techniques may not allow direct and precise measurements of the capillary forces at the intra- and inter-cellular scales. By preserving liquid droplets at the liquid-liquid interface, we have discovered and studied ideal models, i.e., interfacial liquids and marbles, for understanding general capillary mechanics that existed in liquid-in-liquid systems, e.g., biomolecular condensates. The unexpectedly long coalescence time of the interfacial liquids revealed that the Stokes equation does not hold as the radius of the liquid bridge approaches zero, evidencing the existence of a third inertially limited viscous regime. Moreover, liquid transport from a liquid droplet to a liquid reservoir can be prohibited by coating the droplet surface with hydrophobic or amphiphilic particles, forming interfacial liquid marbles. Unique characteristics, including high stability, transparency, gas permeability, and self-assembly, are observed for the interfacial liquid marbles. Phase transition and separation induced by the formation of nanostructured materials can be directly observed within the interfacial liquid marbles without the need for surfactants and agitation, making them useful tools to research the interfacial mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China; (Y.W.); (J.H.X.)
- School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Sichuan University of Science and Engineering, Zigong 643000, China
| | - Yuanfeng Wang
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China; (Y.W.); (J.H.X.)
| | - John H. Xin
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China; (Y.W.); (J.H.X.)
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Millar-Haskell CS, Gleghorn JP. A Large-format Polyacrylamide Gel with Controllable Matrix Mechanics for Mammalian Cell Culture and Conditioned Media Production. Bio Protoc 2023; 13:e4807. [PMID: 37727869 PMCID: PMC10505926 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue culture plastic has been used for routine cell culture and in vitro experiments for over 50 years. However, cells are mechanically responsive and behave differently on hard surfaces than they do on softer substrates. Polyacrylamide gels have become a popular hydrogel of choice for controlling surface stiffness and ligand density for cell adhesion. Many synthesis methods use coverslips and small gel surface areas for cell culture, which are amenable to microscopy-based experiments. However, none of the currently published methods can be scaled up to increase the surface area to accommodate conditioned media production, high volume analyte collection, or cell line expansion. To overcome this size limitation, we developed a protocol for synthesizing polyacrylamide in glass dishes using commercially available materials. This enables routine cell culture on soft surfaces and facilitates experiments that require large amounts of analyte, especially studies involving extracellular vesicles and secreted factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason P. Gleghorn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
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Chernokal B, Gonyea CR, Gleghorn JP. Lung Development in a Dish: Models to Interrogate the Cellular Niche and the Role of Mechanical Forces in Development. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1413:29-48. [PMID: 37195525 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-26625-6_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, emphasis has been placed on recapitulating in vitro the architecture and multicellular interactions found in organs in vivo [1, 2]. Whereas traditional reductionist approaches to in vitro models enable teasing apart the precise signaling pathways, cellular interactions, and response to biochemical and biophysical cues, model systems that incorporate higher complexity are needed to ask questions about physiology and morphogenesis at the tissue scale. Significant advancements have been made in establishing in vitro models of lung development to understand cell-fate specification, gene regulatory networks, sexual dimorphism, three-dimensional organization, and how mechanical forces interact to drive lung organogenesis [3-5]. In this chapter, we highlight recent advances in the rapid development of various lung organoids, organ-on-a-chip models, and whole lung ex vivo explant models currently used to dissect the roles of these cellular signals and mechanical cues in lung development and potential avenues for future investigation (Fig. 3.1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Brea Chernokal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Cailin R Gonyea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Jason P Gleghorn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA.
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Gordon NK, Chen Z, Gordon R, Zou Y. French flag gradients and Turing reaction-diffusion versus differentiation waves as models of morphogenesis. Biosystems 2020; 196:104169. [PMID: 32485350 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2020.104169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The Turing reaction-diffusion model and the French Flag Model are widely accepted in the field of development as the best models for explaining embryogenesis. Virtually all current attempts to understand cell differentiation in embryos begin and end with the assumption that some combination of these two models works. The result may become a bias in embryogenesis in assuming the problem has been solved by these two-chemical substance-based models. Neither model is applied consistently. We review the differences between the French Flag, Turing reaction-diffusion model, and a mechanochemical model called the differentiation wave/cell state splitter model. The cytoskeletal cell state splitter and the embryonic differentiation waves was first proposed in 1987 as a combined physics and chemistry model for cell differentiation in embryos, based on empirical observations on urodele amphibian embryos. We hope that the development of theory can be advanced and observations relevant to distinguishing the embryonic differentiation wave model from the French Flag model and reaction-diffusion equations will be taken up by experimentalists. Experimentalists rely on mathematical biologists for theory, and therefore depend on them for what parameters they choose to measure and ignore. Therefore, mathematical biologists need to fully understand the distinctions between these three models.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhan Chen
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA.
| | - Richard Gordon
- Gulf Specimen Marine Laboratory & Aquarium, 222 Clark Drive, Panacea, FL, 32346, USA; C.S. Mott Center for Human Growth & Development, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Wayne State University, 275 E. Hancock, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
| | - Yuting Zou
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA.
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Hagiwara M, Nobata R, Kawahara T. High repeatability from 3D experimental platform for quantitative analysis of cellular branch pattern formations. Integr Biol (Camb) 2019; 10:306-312. [PMID: 29687138 DOI: 10.1039/c8ib00032h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) cell and tissue cultures more closely mimic biological environments than two-dimensional (2D) cultures and are therefore highly desirable in culture experiments. However, 3D cultures often fail to yield repeatable experimental results because of variation in the initial culture conditions, such as cell density and distribution in the extracellular matrix, and therefore reducing such variation is a paramount concern. Here, we present a 3D culture platform that demonstrates highly repeatable experimental results, obtained by controlling the initial cell cluster shape in the gel cube culture device. A micro-mould with the desired shape was fabricated by photolithography or machining, creating a 3D pocket in the extracellular matrix contained in the device. Highly concentrated human bronchial epithelial cells were then injected in the pocket so that the cell cluster shape matched the fabricated mould shape. Subsequently, the cubic device supplied multi-directional scanning, enabling high-resolution capture of the whole tissue structure with only a low-magnification lens. The proposed device significantly improved the repeatability of the developed branch pattern, and multi-directional scanning enabled quantitative analysis of the developed branch pattern formations. A mathematical simulation was also conducted to reveal the mechanisms of branch pattern formation. The proposed platform offers the potential to accelerate any research field that conducts 3D culture experiments, including tissue regeneration and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Hagiwara
- NanoSquare Research Institute, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan.
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Dispersible hydrogel force sensors reveal patterns of solid mechanical stress in multicellular spheroid cultures. Nat Commun 2019; 10:144. [PMID: 30635553 PMCID: PMC6329783 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07967-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how forces orchestrate tissue formation requires technologies to map internal tissue stress at cellular length scales. Here, we develop ultrasoft mechanosensors that visibly deform under less than 10 Pascals of cell-generated stress. By incorporating these mechanosensors into multicellular spheroids, we capture the patterns of internal stress that arise during spheroid formation. We experimentally demonstrate the spontaneous generation of a tensional 'skin', only a few cell layers thick, at the spheroid surface, which correlates with activation of mechanobiological signalling pathways, and balances a compressive stress profile within the tissue. These stresses develop through cell-driven mechanical compaction at the tissue periphery, and suggest that the tissue formation process plays a critically important role in specifying mechanobiological function. The broad applicability of this technique should ultimately provide a quantitative basis to design tissues that leverage the mechanical activity of constituent cells to evolve towards a desired form and function.
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Gilbert RM, Morgan JT, Marcin ES, Gleghorn JP. Fluid mechanics as a driver of tissue-scale mechanical signaling in organogenesis. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2016; 4:199-208. [PMID: 28163984 DOI: 10.1007/s40139-016-0117-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Organogenesis is the process during development by which cells self-assemble into complex, multi-scale tissues. Whereas significant focus and research effort has demonstrated the importance of solid mechanics in organogenesis, less attention has been given to the fluid forces that provide mechanical cues over tissue length scales. RECENT FINDINGS Fluid motion and pressure is capable of creating spatial gradients of forces acting on cells, thus eliciting distinct and localized signaling patterns essential for proper organ formation. Understanding the multi-scale nature of the mechanics is critically important to decipher how mechanical signals sculpt developing organs. SUMMARY This review outlines various mechanisms by which tissues generate, regulate, and sense fluid forces and highlights the impact of these forces and mechanisms in case studies of normal and pathological development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Gilbert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Joshua T Morgan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Elizabeth S Marcin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
| | - Jason P Gleghorn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
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Campàs O. A toolbox to explore the mechanics of living embryonic tissues. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 55:119-30. [PMID: 27061360 PMCID: PMC4903887 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The sculpting of embryonic tissues and organs into their functional morphologies involves the spatial and temporal regulation of mechanics at cell and tissue scales. Decades of in vitro work, complemented by some in vivo studies, have shown the relevance of mechanical cues in the control of cell behaviors that are central to developmental processes, but the lack of methodologies enabling precise, quantitative measurements of mechanical cues in vivo have hindered our understanding of the role of mechanics in embryonic development. Several methodologies are starting to enable quantitative studies of mechanics in vivo and in situ, opening new avenues to explore how mechanics contributes to shaping embryonic tissues and how it affects cell behavior within developing embryos. Here we review the present methodologies to study the role of mechanics in living embryonic tissues, considering their strengths and drawbacks as well as the conditions in which they are most suitable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otger Campàs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA; California Nanosystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
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Guo Q, Dai E, Han X, Xie S, Chao E, Chen Z. Fast nastic motion of plants and bioinspired structures. J R Soc Interface 2015; 12:0598. [PMID: 26354828 PMCID: PMC4614472 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2015.0598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The capability to sense and respond to external mechanical stimuli at various timescales is essential to many physiological aspects in plants, including self-protection, intake of nutrients and reproduction. Remarkably, some plants have evolved the ability to react to mechanical stimuli within a few seconds despite a lack of muscles and nerves. The fast movements of plants in response to mechanical stimuli have long captured the curiosity of scientists and engineers, but the mechanisms behind these rapid thigmonastic movements are still not understood completely. In this article, we provide an overview of such thigmonastic movements in several representative plants, including Dionaea, Utricularia, Aldrovanda, Drosera and Mimosa. In addition, we review a series of studies that present biomimetic structures inspired by fast-moving plants. We hope that this article will shed light on the current status of research on the fast movements of plants and bioinspired structures and also promote interdisciplinary studies on both the fundamental mechanisms of plants' fast movements and biomimetic structures for engineering applications, such as artificial muscles, multi-stable structures and bioinspired robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Guo
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou 350108, China Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Materials Processing and Application, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - E Dai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - X Han
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - S Xie
- Department of Energy, Environmental, and Chemical Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - E Chao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Z Chen
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
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Felekis D, Vogler H, Mecja G, Muntwyler S, Nestorova A, Huang T, Sakar MS, Grossniklaus U, Nelson BJ. Real-time automated characterization of 3D morphology and mechanics of developing plant cells. Int J Rob Res 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/0278364914564231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we introduce the real-time cellular force microscope (RT-CFM), a high-throughput microrobotic platform for mechanical stimulation and characterization of single cells. We developed computer vision algorithms that fully automate the positioning of target cells and localization of the sensor tip. The control and acquisition architecture dramatically increases the accuracy, speed, and reliability of force measurements. Pollen tubes provide an ideal model system for the study of plant mechanics at the single-cell level. To quantitatively obtain the physical properties of the plant cell wall, we generated topography and stiffness measurements from 3D scans of living, growing pollen tubes. We report techniques for real-time monitoring and analysis of intracellular calcium fluxes during mechanical intervention. Our platform is compatible with various imaging systems and enables a powerful screening technology to facilitate biomechanical and morphological characterization of developing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Felekis
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Hannes Vogler
- Institute of Plant Biology and Zürich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Geraldo Mecja
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Simon Muntwyler
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Anna Nestorova
- Institute of Plant Biology and Zürich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Tianyun Huang
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Dalian University of Technology, School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian Liaoning, China
- Liaoning University of Science and Technology, School of Electronics and Information Engineering, Anshan Liaoning, China
| | - Mahmut S. Sakar
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Ueli Grossniklaus
- Institute of Plant Biology and Zürich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Bradley J. Nelson
- Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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Abstract
Branching morphogenesis is the developmental program that builds the ramified epithelial trees of various organs, including the airways of the lung, the collecting ducts of the kidney, and the ducts of the mammary and salivary glands. Even though the final geometries of epithelial trees are distinct, the molecular signaling pathways that control branching morphogenesis appear to be conserved across organs and species. However, despite this molecular homology, recent advances in cell lineage analysis and real-time imaging have uncovered surprising differences in the mechanisms that build these diverse tissues. Here, we review these studies and discuss the cellular and physical mechanisms that can contribute to branching morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor D Varner
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Celeste M Nelson
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
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Abstract
Effective utilization of three-dimensional printing for tissue and organ engineering remains nontrivial. Here, Jordan Miller identifies key challenges and discusses conceptual targets on the horizon. How structure relates to function—across spatial scales, from the single molecule to the whole organism—is a central theme in biology. Bioengineers, however, wrestle with the converse question: will function follow form? That is, we struggle to approximate the architecture of living tissues experimentally, hoping that the structure we create will lead to the function we desire. A new means to explore the relationship between form and function in living tissue has arrived with three-dimensional printing, but the technology is not without limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan S. Miller
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Celeste M. Nelson
- Departments of 1Chemical & Biological Engineering and
- Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544;
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