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Chowdhary S, Deka R, Panda K, Kumar R, Solomon AD, Das J, Kanoujiya S, Gupta AK, Sinha S, Ruokolainen J, Kesari KK, Gupta PK. Recent Updates on Viral Oncogenesis: Available Preventive and Therapeutic Entities. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:3698-3740. [PMID: 37486263 PMCID: PMC10410670 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c01080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Human viral oncogenesis is a complex phenomenon and a major contributor to the global cancer burden. Several recent findings revealed cellular and molecular pathways that promote the development and initiation of malignancy when viruses cause an infection. Even, antiviral treatment has become an approach to eliminate the viral infections and prevent the activation of oncogenesis. Therefore, for a better understanding, the molecular pathogenesis of various oncogenic viruses like, hepatitis virus, human immunodeficiency viral (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), could be explored, especially, to expand many potent antivirals that may escalate the apoptosis of infected malignant cells while sparing normal and healthy ones. Moreover, contemporary therapies, such as engineered antibodies antiviral agents targeting signaling pathways and cell biomarkers, could inhibit viral oncogenesis. This review elaborates the recent advancements in both natural and synthetic antivirals to control viral oncogenesis. The study also highlights the challenges and future perspectives of using antivirals in viral oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivam Chowdhary
- Department
of Industrial Microbiology, Sam Higginbottom
University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj 211007, Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Rahul Deka
- Department
of Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Birla
Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Kingshuk Panda
- Department
of Applied Microbiology, Vellore Institute
of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Rohit Kumar
- Department
of Life Sciences, Sharda School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Abhishikt David Solomon
- Department
of Molecular & Cellular Engineering, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj 211007, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Jimli Das
- Centre
for
Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Dibrugarh
University, Assam 786004, India
| | - Supriya Kanoujiya
- School
of
Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Ashish Kumar Gupta
- Department
of Biophysics, All India Institute of Medical
Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India
| | - Somya Sinha
- Department
of Biotechnology, Graphic Era Deemed to
Be University, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department
of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto
University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department
of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto
University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Division
of Research and Development, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab, India
| | - Piyush Kumar Gupta
- Department
of Life Sciences, Sharda School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department
of Biotechnology, Graphic Era Deemed to
Be University, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India
- Faculty
of Health and Life Sciences, INTI International
University, Nilai 71800, Malaysia
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2
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Loke ASW, Lambert PF, Spurgeon ME. Current In Vitro and In Vivo Models to Study MCPyV-Associated MCC. Viruses 2022; 14:2204. [PMID: 36298759 PMCID: PMC9607385 DOI: 10.3390/v14102204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the only human polyomavirus currently known to cause human cancer. MCPyV is believed to be an etiological factor in at least 80% of cases of the rare but aggressive skin malignancy Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). In these MCPyV+ MCC tumors, clonal integration of the viral genome results in the continued expression of two viral proteins: the viral small T antigen (ST) and a truncated form of the viral large T antigen. The oncogenic potential of MCPyV and the functional properties of the viral T antigens that contribute to neoplasia are becoming increasingly well-characterized with the recent development of model systems that recapitulate the biology of MCPyV+ MCC. In this review, we summarize our understanding of MCPyV and its role in MCC, followed by the current state of both in vitro and in vivo model systems used to study MCPyV and its contribution to carcinogenesis. We also highlight the remaining challenges within the field and the major considerations related to the ongoing development of in vitro and in vivo models of MCPyV+ MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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3
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Almansour NM. Immunoinformatics- and Bioinformatics-Assisted Computational Designing of a Novel Multiepitopes Vaccine Against Cancer-Causing Merkel Cell Polyomavirus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:929669. [PMID: 35836414 PMCID: PMC9273964 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.929669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) contains double-stranded DNA as its genome and is the fifth polyomavirus that infects humans. The virus causes Merkel cell carcinoma (aggressive skin cancer). Till present, no proper drug or vaccines are available to treat/prevent the virus infection and stop the emergence of Merkel cell carcinoma. In this study, computational vaccine design strategies were applied to design a chimeric-epitopes vaccine against the virus. The complete proteome comprised of four proteins was filtered through various vaccine candidacy parameters and as such two proteins, namely, capsid protein VP1 and capsid protein VP2, were considered as good vaccine targets. Furthermore, they harbor safe and potential B and T cell epitopes, which can be used in a chimeric multiepitopes-based vaccine design. The epitopes of the vaccine have maximum world population coverage of 95.04%. The designed vaccine structure was modeled in 3D that reported maximum residues in favored regions (95.7%) of the Ramachandran plot. The interactions analysis with different human immune receptors like TLR3, MHC-I, and MHC-II illustrated vaccine's good binding affinity and stable dynamics. The structural deviations of the vaccine receptor(s) complexes are within 5 Å, where majority of the receptors residues remain in good equilibrium in the simulation time. Also, the vaccine was found to form between 60 and 100 hydrogen bonds to receptors. The vaccine stimulated strong immune responses in addition to interferon and cytokines. The strength of vaccine-receptor(s) binding was further affirmed by binding energies estimation that concluded <-150.32 kcal/mol of net binding energy. All these findings suggest the vaccine as a promising candidate that needs further experimental testing to disclose its real immune protective efficacy. Furthermore, the designed vaccine might accelerate vaccine development against the MCV and could save time and expenses.
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4
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Moens U, Prezioso C, Pietropaolo V. Functional Domains of the Early Proteins and Experimental and Epidemiological Studies Suggest a Role for the Novel Human Polyomaviruses in Cancer. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:834368. [PMID: 35250950 PMCID: PMC8894888 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.834368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As their name indicates, polyomaviruses (PyVs) can induce tumors. Mouse PyV, hamster PyV and raccoon PyV have been shown to cause tumors in their natural host. During the last 30 years, 15 PyVs have been isolated from humans. From these, Merkel cell PyV is classified as a Group 2A carcinogenic pathogen (probably carcinogenic to humans), whereas BKPyV and JCPyV are class 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Although the other PyVs recently detected in humans (referred to here as novel HPyV; nHPyV) share many common features with PyVs, including the viral oncoproteins large tumor antigen and small tumor antigen, as their role in cancer is questioned. This review discusses whether the nHPyVs may play a role in cancer based on predicted and experimentally proven functions of their early proteins in oncogenic processes. The functional domains that mediate the oncogenic properties of early proteins of known PyVs, that can cause cancer in their natural host or animal models, have been well characterized and we examined whether these functional domains are conserved in the early proteins of the nHPyVs and presented experimental evidence that these conserved domains are functional. Furthermore, we reviewed the literature describing the detection of nHPyV in human tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugo Moens
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø – The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- *Correspondence: Ugo Moens,
| | - Carla Prezioso
- Microbiology of Chronic Neuro-Degenerative Pathologies, IRCSS San Raffaele Roma, Rome, Italy
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Valeria Pietropaolo,
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5
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Bagchi P, Liu X, Cho WJ, Tsai B. Lunapark-dependent formation of a virus-induced ER exit site contains multi-tubular ER junctions that promote viral ER-to-cytosol escape. Cell Rep 2021; 37:110077. [PMID: 34879280 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses rearrange host membranes to support different entry steps. Polyomavirus simian virus 40 (SV40) reorganizes the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane to generate focus structures that enable virus ER-to-cytosol escape, a decisive infection step. The molecular architecture of the ER exit site that might illuminate why it is ideally suited for membrane penetration is unknown. Here 3D focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) reconstruction reveals that the ER focus structure consists of multi-tubular ER junctions where SV40 preferentially localizes, suggesting that tubular branch points are virus ER-to-cytosol penetration sites. Functional analysis demonstrates that lunapark-an ER membrane protein that typically stabilizes three-way ER junctions-relocates to the ER foci, where it supports focus formation, leading to SV40 ER escape and infection. Our results reveal how a virus repurposes the activity of an ER membrane protein to form a virus-induced ER substructure required for membrane escape and suggest that ER tubular junctions are vulnerable sites exploited by viruses for membrane penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parikshit Bagchi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 3043, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Xiaofang Liu
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 3043, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Woo Jung Cho
- Biomedical Research Core Facilities, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 3043, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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6
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Katerji M, Duerksen-Hughes PJ. DNA damage in cancer development: special implications in viral oncogenesis. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:3956-3979. [PMID: 34522461 PMCID: PMC8414375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA lesions arise from a combination of physiological/metabolic sources and exogenous environmental influences. When left unrepaired, these alterations accumulate in the cells and can give rise to mutations that change the function of important proteins (i.e. tumor suppressors, oncoproteins), or cause chromosomal rearrangements (i.e. gene fusions) that also result in the deregulation of key cellular molecules. Progressive acquisition of such genetic changes promotes uncontrolled cell proliferation and evasion of cell death, and hence plays a key role in carcinogenesis. Another less-studied consequence of DNA damage accumulating in the host genome is the integration of oncogenic DNA viruses such as Human papillomavirus, Merkel cell polyomavirus, and Hepatitis B virus. This critical step of viral-induced carcinogenesis is thought to be particularly facilitated by DNA breaks in both viral and host genomes. Therefore, the impact of DNA damage on carcinogenesis is magnified in the case of such oncoviruses via the additional effect of increasing integration frequency. In this review, we briefly present the various endogenous and exogenous factors that cause different types of DNA damage. Next, we discuss the contribution of these lesions in cancer development. Finally, we examine the amplified effect of DNA damage in viral-induced oncogenesis and summarize the limited data existing in the literature related to DNA damage-induced viral integration. To conclude, additional research is needed to assess the DNA damage pathways involved in the transition from viral infection to cancer. Discovering that a certain DNA damaging agent increases the likelihood of viral integration will enable the development of prophylactic and therapeutic strategies designed specifically to prevent such integration, with an ultimate goal of reducing or eliminating these viral-induced malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghri Katerji
- Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University School of Medicine Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA
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7
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How DNA and RNA Viruses Exploit Host Chaperones to Promote Infection. Viruses 2021; 13:v13060958. [PMID: 34064125 PMCID: PMC8224278 DOI: 10.3390/v13060958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To initiate infection, a virus enters a host cell typically via receptor-dependent endocytosis. It then penetrates a subcellular membrane, reaching a destination that supports transcription, translation, and replication of the viral genome. These steps lead to assembly and morphogenesis of the new viral progeny. The mature virus finally exits the host cell to begin the next infection cycle. Strikingly, viruses hijack host molecular chaperones to accomplish these distinct entry steps. Here we highlight how DNA viruses, including polyomavirus and the human papillomavirus, exploit soluble and membrane-associated chaperones to enter a cell, penetrating and escaping an intracellular membrane en route for infection. We also describe the mechanism by which RNA viruses—including flavivirus and coronavirus—co-opt cytosolic and organelle-selective chaperones to promote viral endocytosis, protein biosynthesis, replication, and assembly. These examples underscore the importance of host chaperones during virus infection, potentially revealing novel antiviral strategies to combat virus-induced diseases.
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8
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Prezioso C, Van Ghelue M, Pietropaolo V, Moens U. Detection of Quebec Polyomavirus DNA in Samples from Different Patient Groups. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9051082. [PMID: 34070030 PMCID: PMC8158138 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9051082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyomaviruses infect many species, including humans. So far, 15 polyomaviruses have been described in humans, but it remains to be established whether all of these are genuine human polyomaviruses. The most recent polyomavirus to be detected in a person is Quebec polyomavirus (QPyV), which was identified in a metagenomic analysis of a stool sample from an 85-year-old hospitalized man. We used PCR to investigate the presence of QPyV DNA in urine samples from systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients (67 patients; 135 samples), multiple sclerosis patients (n = 35), HIV-positive patients (n = 66) and pregnant women (n = 65). Moreover, cerebrospinal fluid from patients with suspected neurological diseases (n = 63), nasopharyngeal aspirates from patients (n = 80) with respiratory symptoms and plasma samples from HIV-positive patients (n = 65) were examined. QPyV DNA was found in urine from 11 (16.4%), 10 (15.4%) and 5 (14.3%) SLE patients, pregnant women, and multiple sclerosis patients, respectively. No QPyV DNA could be detected in the other samples. Alignment with the only available QPyV sequence in the GenBank revealed amino acid substitutions in the HI-loop of capsid protein VP1 in 6/28 of the isolates. Our results show that QPyV viruria can occur, but whether it may cause clinical symptoms in the patients remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Prezioso
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
- IRCSS San Raffaele Pisana, Microbiology of Chronic Neuro-degenerative Pathologies, 00163 Rome, Italy
| | - Marijke Van Ghelue
- Department of Medical Genetics, Division of Child and Adolescent Health, University Hospital of North Norway, 9038 Tromsø, Norway;
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
- Correspondence: (V.P.); (U.M.)
| | - Ugo Moens
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
- Correspondence: (V.P.); (U.M.)
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9
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Abstract
Approximately, 1.4 million virus-induced cancers occur annually, representing roughly 10% of the worldwide cancer burden, with the majority (> 85%) occurring in the lower- and middle-income countries. The viruses associated with the greatest number of cancer cases are human papillomaviruses (HPVs), which cause cervical cancer and several other epithelial malignancies, and hepatitis viruses HBV and HCV, which are responsible for the majority of hepatocellular cancer. Other oncoviruses include Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV), human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-I), and Merkel cell polyoma virus (MCPyV). These oncoviruses include various classes of DNA and RNA viruses and induce cancer by a variety of mechanisms. However, cancers develop in a minority of infected individuals and almost always after chronic infection of many year's duration. Identification of the oncoviruses has provided critical insights in human carcinogenesis and led to several interventions that may reduce the risk of developing the tumors they induce. These interventions include preventive vaccines against HBV and HPV, screening for persistent HPV and HCV infections, antivirals for the treatment of chronic HBV and HCV infection, and screening the blood supply for the presence of HBV and HCV. Further efforts to identify additional oncogenic viruses in human cancers and new insights into etiology and pathogenesis of virally induced cancers would likely lead to new approaches for prophylactic and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Schiller
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Douglas R Lowy
- Laboratory of Cellular Oncology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
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10
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Merkel Cell Carcinoma of the Maxillary Sinus: An Unusual Presentation of a Common Tumor. Head Neck Pathol 2020; 15:691-697. [PMID: 32915383 PMCID: PMC8134595 DOI: 10.1007/s12105-020-01219-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma is most commonly seen in the skin of sun exposed areas, particularly the head and neck and is associated with Merkel cell polyomavirus. Merkel cell carcinoma at an extracutaneous mucosal site of the head and neck is rare. We report a case of a 74-year-old women who presented with an enlarging thyroid mass found to be neuroendocrine carcinoma consistent with Merkel cell carcinoma (positive for synaptophysin, chromogranin, CK20). Subsequent work up revealed a maxillary sinus mass with extension into the nasal cavity. Biopsy was diagnostic for Merkel cell carcinoma (positive for synaptophysin, chromogranin, CK20 and Merkel cell polyomavirus). There are only case reports and small case series of Merkel cell carcinoma arising in the mucosal sites of the head and neck most commonly in the oral cavity, rarely the sinonasal mucosa. Merkel cell carcinoma metastasizing to the thyroid has only been reported in three other case reports, all from skin primaries. In addition to our case, we review the literature of extracutaneous sinonasal Merkel cell carcinoma and metastases to the thyroid.
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11
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Yuan Z, Ye X, Zhu L, Zhang N, An Z, Zheng WJ. Virome assembly and annotation in brain tissue based on next-generation sequencing. Cancer Med 2020; 9:6776-6790. [PMID: 32738030 PMCID: PMC7520322 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.3325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the deadliest tumors. It has been speculated that virus plays a role in GBM but the evidences are controversy. Published researches are mainly limited to studies on the presence of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in GBM. No comprehensive assessment of the brain virome, the collection of viral material in the brain, based on recently sequenced data has been performed. Here, we characterized the virome from 111 GBM samples and 57 normal brain samples from eight projects in the SRA database by a tested and comprehensive assembly approach. The annotation of the assembled contigs showed that most viral sequences in the brain belong to the viral family Retroviridae. In some GBM samples, we also detected full genome sequence of a novel picornavirus recently discovered in invertebrates. Unlike previous reports, our study did not detect herpes virus such as HCMV in GBM from the data we used. However, some contigs that cannot be annotated with any known genes exhibited antibody epitopes in their sequences. These findings provide several avenues for potential cancer therapy: the newly discovered picornavirus could be a starting point to engineer novel oncolytic virus; and the exhibited antibody epitopes could be a source to explore potential drug targets for immune cancer therapy. By characterizing the virosphere in GBM and normal brain at a global level, the results from this study strengthen the link between GBM and viral infection which warrants the further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihao Yuan
- School of Biomedical InformaticsUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
- Texas Therapeutics InstituteInstitute of Molecular MedicineMcGovern Medical SchoolUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
| | - Xiaohua Ye
- Texas Therapeutics InstituteInstitute of Molecular MedicineMcGovern Medical SchoolUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
| | - Lisha Zhu
- School of Biomedical InformaticsUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
| | - Ningyan Zhang
- Texas Therapeutics InstituteInstitute of Molecular MedicineMcGovern Medical SchoolUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
| | - Zhiqiang An
- Texas Therapeutics InstituteInstitute of Molecular MedicineMcGovern Medical SchoolUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
| | - W. Jim Zheng
- School of Biomedical InformaticsUniversity of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonHoustonTXUSA
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12
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Bryant MK, Ward C, Gaber CE, Strassle PD, Ollila DW, Laks S. Decreased survival and increased recurrence in Merkel cell carcinoma significantly linked with immunosuppression. J Surg Oncol 2020; 122:653-659. [PMID: 32562583 DOI: 10.1002/jso.26048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive form of skin cancer. It is an immunogenic tumor as evident by its association with Polyomavirus, immunotherapy response, and increased prevalence in the immunosuppressed population. OBJECTIVE We sought to evaluate the impact of known clinicopathological determinants and immunosuppression on the risk of recurrence and mortality of MCC patients. METHODS A retrospective, observational cohort study of patients diagnosed and/or treated with MCC at two tertiary academic institutions. We compared clinicopathological determinants, treatment modalities, and immunosuppression status on clinical outcomes of recurrence, disease-specific survival, and overall survival. RESULTS We evaluated 90 patients within our study and 34% had a cancer recurrence during follow-up. Patients with recurrence were significantly more likely to be immunosuppressed (32% vs 5%; P = .001). Estimated 5-year recurrence was 43%, and immunosuppressed patients were significantly more likely to recur (Hazard ratio [HR] 3.67 [1.80-7.51]; P < .0001). Immunosuppressed patients had significantly elevated cancer-specific mortality (HR 6.11[1.61-23.26]; P = .008). LIMITATIONS Retrospective review with a prolonged observation period and changing treatment modalities. CONCLUSION Immunocompromised patients had a threefold increased incidence of 5-year mortality and over twofold increased incidence of any recurrence as non-immunocompromised patients. Patients' immunosuppressive status should be considered when making decisions regarding treatment, surveillance, and prognostication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Bryant
- Department of Surgery, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Christine Ward
- Department of Surgery, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Charles E Gaber
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Paula D Strassle
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - David W Ollila
- Department of Surgery, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Shachar Laks
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
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13
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Arora R, Choi JE, Harms PW, Chandrani P. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Integration Sites and Involvement of the KMT2D Tumor Suppressor Gene. Viruses 2020; 12:v12090966. [PMID: 32878339 PMCID: PMC7552051 DOI: 10.3390/v12090966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an uncommon, lethal cancer of the skin caused by either Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) or UV-linked mutations. MCPyV is found integrated into MCC tumor genomes, accompanied by truncation mutations that render the MCPyV large T antigen replication incompetent. We used the open access HPV Detector/Cancer-virus Detector tool to determine MCPyV integration sites in whole-exome sequencing data from five MCC cases, thereby adding to the limited published MCPyV integration site junction data. We also systematically reviewed published data on integration for MCPyV in the human genome, presenting a collation of 123 MCC cases and their linked chromosomal sites. We confirmed that there were no highly recurrent specific sites of integration. We found that chromosome 5 was most frequently involved in MCPyV integration and that integration sites were significantly enriched for genes with binding sites for oncogenic transcription factors such as LEF1 and ZEB1, suggesting the possibility of increased open chromatin in these gene sets. Additionally, in one case we found, for the first time, integration involving the tumor suppressor gene KMT2D, adding to previous reports of rare MCPyV integration into host tumor suppressor genes in MCC.
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MESH Headings
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Merkel Cell/virology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/metabolism
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/virology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Genes, Tumor Suppressor
- Humans
- Merkel cell polyomavirus/genetics
- Merkel cell polyomavirus/physiology
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism
- Polyomavirus Infections/genetics
- Polyomavirus Infections/metabolism
- Polyomavirus Infections/virology
- Tumor Virus Infections/genetics
- Tumor Virus Infections/metabolism
- Tumor Virus Infections/virology
- Virus Integration
- Zinc Finger E-box-Binding Homeobox 1/genetics
- Zinc Finger E-box-Binding Homeobox 1/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Reety Arora
- Cellular Organization and Signalling Group, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore 560065, India
- Correspondence:
| | - Jae Eun Choi
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (J.E.C.); (P.W.H.)
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- School of Medicine, University of San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Paul W. Harms
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (J.E.C.); (P.W.H.)
- Michigan Center for Translational Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Pratik Chandrani
- Medical Oncology Molecular Laboratory, Medical Oncology Department, Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai 400012, India;
- Centre for Computational Biology, Bioinformatics and Crosstalk Laboratory, ACTREC–Tata Memorial Centre, Navi Mumbai 410210, India
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14
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Tabachnick-Cherny S, Pulliam T, Church C, Koelle DM, Nghiem P. Polyomavirus-driven Merkel cell carcinoma: Prospects for therapeutic vaccine development. Mol Carcinog 2020; 59:807-821. [PMID: 32219902 PMCID: PMC8238237 DOI: 10.1002/mc.23190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Great strides have been made in cancer immunotherapy including the breakthrough successes of anti-PD-(L)1 checkpoint inhibitors. In Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare and aggressive skin cancer, PD-(L)1 blockade is highly effective. Yet, ~50% of patients either do not respond to therapy or develop PD-(L)1 refractory disease and, thus, do not experience long-term benefit. For these patients, additional or combination therapies are needed to augment immune responses that target and eliminate cancer cells. Therapeutic vaccines targeting tumor-associated antigens, mutated self-antigens, or immunogenic viral oncoproteins are currently being developed to augment T-cell responses. Approximately 80% of MCC cases in the United States are driven by the ongoing expression of viral T-antigen (T-Ag) oncoproteins from genomically integrated Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Since T-Ag elicits specific B- and T-cell immune responses in most persons with virus-positive MCC (VP-MCC), and ongoing T-Ag expression is required to drive VP-MCC cell proliferation, therapeutic vaccination with T-Ag is a rational potential component of immunotherapy. Failure of the endogenous T-cell response to clear VP-MCC (allowing clinically evident tumors to arise) implies that therapeutic vaccination will need to be potent anśd synergize with other mechanisms to enhance T-cell activity against tumor cells. Here, we review the relevant underlying biology of VP-MCC, potentially applicable therapeutic vaccine platforms, and antigen delivery formats. We also describe early successes in the field of therapeutic cancer vaccines and address several clinical scenarios in which VP-MCC patients could potentially benefit from a therapeutic vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Tabachnick-Cherny
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Thomas Pulliam
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Candice Church
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - David M Koelle
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
- Translational Research Program, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, Washington
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
- Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, Seattle, Washington
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
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15
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Siebels S, Czech-Sioli M, Spohn M, Schmidt C, Theiss J, Indenbirken D, Günther T, Grundhoff A, Fischer N. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus DNA Replication Induces Senescence in Human Dermal Fibroblasts in a Kap1/Trim28-Dependent Manner. mBio 2020; 11:e00142-20. [PMID: 32156811 PMCID: PMC7064754 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00142-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the only polyomavirus known to be associated with tumorigenesis in humans. Similarly to other polyomaviruses, MCPyV expresses a large tumor antigen (LT-Ag) that, together with a small tumor antigen (sT-Ag), contributes to cellular transformation and that is of critical importance for the initiation of the viral DNA replication. Understanding the cellular protein network regulated by MCPyV early proteins will significantly contribute to our understanding of the natural MCPyV life cycle as well as of the mechanisms by which the virus contributes to cellular transformation. We here describe KRAB-associated protein 1 (Kap1), a chromatin remodeling factor involved in cotranscriptional regulation, as a novel protein interaction partner of MCPyV T antigens sT and LT. Kap1 knockout results in a significant increase in the level of viral DNA replication that is highly suggestive of Kap1 being an important host restriction factor during MCPyV infection. Differently from other DNA viruses, MCPyV gene expression is unaffected in the absence of Kap1 and Kap1 does not associate with the viral genome. Instead, we show that in primary normal human dermal fibroblast (nHDF) cells, MCPyV DNA replication, but not T antigen expression alone, induces ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase-dependent Kap1 S824 phosphorylation, a mechanism that typically facilitates repair of double-strand breaks in heterochromatin by arresting the cells in G2 We show that MCPyV-induced inhibition of cell proliferation is mainly conferred by residues within the origin binding domain and thereby by viral DNA replication. Our data suggest that phosphorylation of Kap1 and subsequent Kap1-dependent G2 arrest/senescence represent host defense mechanisms against MCPyV replication in nHDF cells.IMPORTANCE We here describe Kap1 as a restriction factor in MCPyV infection. We report a novel, indirect mechanism by which Kap1 affects MCPyV replication. In contrast with from other DNA viruses, Kap1 does not associate with the viral genome in MCPyV infection and has no impact on viral gene expression. In MCPyV-infected nHDF cells, Kap1 phosphorylation (pKap1 S824) accumulates because of genomic stress mainly induced by viral DNA replication. In contrast, ectopic expression of LT or LT MCPyV mutants, previously shown to be important for induction of genotoxic stress, does not result in a similar extent of pKap1 accumulation. We show that cells actively replicating MCPyV accumulate pKap1 (in a manner dependent on the presence of ATM) and display a senescence phenotype reflected by G2 arrest. These results are supported by transcriptome analyses showing that LT antigen, in a manner dependent on the presence of Kap1, induces expression of secreted factors, which is known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP).
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Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Siebels
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Manja Czech-Sioli
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael Spohn
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Claudia Schmidt
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Juliane Theiss
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Indenbirken
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Günther
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Fischer
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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16
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Arora R, Gupta K, Vijaykumar A, Krishna S. DETECTing Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Tumors. Front Mol Biosci 2020; 7:10. [PMID: 32118036 PMCID: PMC7011098 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive skin cancer caused either by Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) T antigen expression, post-integration (~80% cases), or by UV-mediated DNA damage. Interestingly, overall survival of MCV-positive Merkel cell carcinoma patients is better, making this differential information of significant diagnostic and prognostic value. Also, MCV provides a direct target for therapy in MCC patients. Currently, the methods used for diagnosis of MCV in tumors are often discordant and unreliable. Here we used a guided molecular scissors based-DNA Endonuclease Targeted CRISPR Trans Reporter (DETECTR) technique to develop an in vitro molecular diagnostic tool for MCV-positive MCC. DETECTR couples recombinase polymerase based amplification of target MCV DNA with Cas12a mediated detection. CRISPR diagnostics couple specific detection followed by cutting of the pathogenic DNA by the Cas enzyme-gRNA complex, with non-specific cutting of ssDNA that provides a measurable visual cue. To detect MCV DNA in MCC, we designed Cas12a gRNAs targeting the MCV DNA and tested their targeting efficiency, and sensitivity using a fluorophore quencher labeled reporter assay. We show that MCV DETECTR system can detect MCV integrated in Merkel tumor rapidly, specifically and with femto-molar sensitivity. Our study is a preliminary, proof-of-principle analysis showing the use of CRISPR for MCV diagnosis. Further validation in human tumor samples is needed for its clinical use in the near future. This new system is promising and we hope it can be coupled with immunohistochemical studies to diagnose the viral status of MCC in clinics soon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reety Arora
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bangalore, India
| | - Komal Gupta
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bangalore, India
- Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, India
| | - Anjali Vijaykumar
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bangalore, India
| | - Sudhir Krishna
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bangalore, India
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17
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Csoboz B, Rasheed K, Sveinbjørnsson B, Moens U. Merkel cell polyomavirus and non-Merkel cell carcinomas: guilty or circumstantial evidence? APMIS 2020; 128:104-120. [PMID: 31990105 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the major causative factor of the rare but aggressive cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Two characteristics of MCPyV-positive MCCs are integration of the viral genome and expression of a truncated version of one of its oncogenic proteins, namely large T antigen. The strong association of MCPyV with MCC development has incited researchers to further investigate a possible role of this virus in other cancers. However, many of the examples displaying the presence of the virus in the various non-MCC cancers are not able to clearly demonstrate a direct connection between cellular transformation and the presence of the virus. The prevalence of the virus is significantly lower in non-MCC cancers compared to MCCs, with a lower level of viral load and sparse viral protein expression. Moreover, the state of the viral genome, and whether a truncated large T antigen is expressed, has rarely been investigated. Nonetheless, considering the strong oncogenic potential of MCPyV proteins in MCC, the plausible contribution of MCPyV to transformation and cancer growth in non-MCC tumors cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, the absence of MCPyV in cancers does not exclude a hit-and-run mechanism, or the oncoproteins of MCPyV may potentiate the neoplastic process mediated by co-infecting oncoviruses such as high-risk human papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr virus. The current review is focusing on the available data describing the presence of MCPyV in non-MCC tumors, with an aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the corresponding literature and to discuss the potential contribution of MCPyV to non-MCC cancer in light of this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balint Csoboz
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kashif Rasheed
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Baldur Sveinbjørnsson
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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18
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Gupta P, Shahzad N, Harold A, Shuda M, Venuti A, Romero-Medina MC, Pacini L, Brault L, Robitaille A, Taverniti V, Hernandez-Vargas H, Durand G, Le Calvez-Kelm F, Gheit T, Accardi R, Tommasino M. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Downregulates N-myc Downstream-Regulated Gene 1, Leading to Cellular Proliferation and Migration. J Virol 2020; 94:e00899-19. [PMID: 31694959 PMCID: PMC7000982 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00899-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the first human polyomavirus etiologically associated with Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare and aggressive form of skin cancer. Similar to other polyomaviruses, MCPyV encodes early T antigen genes, viral oncogenes required for MCC tumor growth. To identify the unique oncogenic properties of MCPyV, we analyzed the gene expression profiles in human spontaneously immortalized keratinocytes (NIKs) expressing the early genes from six distinct human polyomaviruses (PyVs), including MCPyV. A comparison of the gene expression profiles revealed 28 genes specifically deregulated by MCPyV. In particular, the MCPyV early gene downregulated the expression of the tumor suppressor gene N-myc downstream-regulated gene 1 (NDRG1) in MCPyV gene-expressing NIKs and hTERT-MCPyV gene-expressing human keratinocytes (HK) compared to their expression in the controls. In MCPyV-positive MCC cells, the expression of NDRG1 was downregulated by the MCPyV early gene, as T antigen knockdown rescued the level of NDRG1. In addition, NDRG1 overexpression in hTERT-MCPyV gene-expressing HK or MCC cells resulted in a decrease in the number of cells in S phase and cell proliferation inhibition. Moreover, a decrease in wound healing capacity in hTERT-MCPyV gene-expressing HK was observed. Further analysis revealed that NDRG1 exerts its biological effect in Merkel cell lines by regulating the expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) and cyclin D1 proteins. Overall, NDRG1 plays an important role in MCPyV-induced cellular proliferation.IMPORTANCE Merkel cell carcinoma was first described in 1972 as a neuroendocrine tumor of skin, most cases of which were reported in 2008 to be caused by a PyV named Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), the first PyV linked to human cancer. Thereafter, numerous studies have been conducted to understand the etiology of this virus-induced carcinogenesis. However, it is still a new field, and much work is needed to understand the molecular pathogenesis of MCC. In the current work, we sought to identify the host genes specifically deregulated by MCPyV, as opposed to other PyVs, in order to better understand the relevance of the genes analyzed on the biological impact and progression of the disease. These findings open newer avenues for targeted drug therapies, thereby providing hope for the management of patients suffering from this highly aggressive cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purnima Gupta
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Naveed Shahzad
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Alexis Harold
- Cancer Virology Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Masahiro Shuda
- Cancer Virology Program, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Assunta Venuti
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Laura Pacini
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Lise Brault
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Alexis Robitaille
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Valerio Taverniti
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | | | - Geoffroy Durand
- Genetic Cancer Susceptibility Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Florence Le Calvez-Kelm
- Genetic Cancer Susceptibility Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Tarik Gheit
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Rosita Accardi
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Massimo Tommasino
- Infections and Cancer Biology Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
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19
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Ennaji MM. General Introduction to Volume 1 Emergent and Reemergent Viruses: Modern Important Issues. EMERGING AND REEMERGING VIRAL PATHOGENS 2020. [PMCID: PMC7149692 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819400-3.00001-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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20
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Arora R, Rekhi B, Chandrani P, Krishna S, Dutt A. Merkel cell polyomavirus is implicated in a subset of Merkel cell carcinomas, in the Indian subcontinent. Microb Pathog 2019; 137:103778. [PMID: 31600537 PMCID: PMC7166130 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare, lethal cancer histopathologically composed of cells showing similarity with mechanoreceptor Merkel cells. Merkel cell tumors manifest in two distinct forms. While a virus called Merkel cell polyomavirus is involved in the pathogenesis of one form of Merkel tumors, the other is driven by ultraviolet (UV)-linked mutations. In this study we investigated 18 cases, from the Indian population, of Merkel cell carcinoma for immunohistochemical (IHC) expression of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) T antigen, including 12 cases tested by PCR, to identify viral etiopathology. We tested the tumors with two sensitive antibodies (CM2B4 and Ab3), targeting the viral large T antigen protein and with PCR primers targeting the N terminus of T antigen. Overall, we observed 38.8% (7/18) tumors displaying positive IHC expression of Merkel cell polyomavirus T antigen and 25% (3/12) tumors showing positive results, by both, immunohistochemistry and PCR. This constitutes the first report from India showing implication of MCV in Merkel cell carcinomas. Moreover, this is one of the larger series of Merkel cell carcinomas, tested for MCV, by both immunohistochemistry and PCR, in this part of the world. These results further indicate that a slightly more number of such cases in India are likely to be caused by UV-linked damage, as opposed to Merkel cell polyomavirus mediated tumorigenesis, which is definitely implicated in a subset of cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reety Arora
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
| | - Bharat Rekhi
- Department of Surgical Pathology, Tata Memorial Centre, Parel, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.
| | - Pratik Chandrani
- Integrated Genomics Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer, Tata Memorial Centre, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sudhir Krishna
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Amit Dutt
- Integrated Genomics Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer, Tata Memorial Centre, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India; Homi Bhabha National Institute, Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai, India
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21
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Ikeda R, Ohta N, Fukaya S, Shoji F, Suzuki T, Noguchi N, Kakuta R, Hayashi K, Kiba T, Murakami K, Nakamura Y. Nodal Merkel Cell Carcinoma in Head and Neck Lesions with an Unknown Primary: A Case Report in Light of the Literature. Yonago Acta Med 2019; 62:258-262. [PMID: 31582892 DOI: 10.33160/yam.2019.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer. To diagnose nodal MCC with an unknown primary disease is challenging, and it has to be separated from other nodal metastatic neoplasms. We report a unique case of nodal MCC in head and neck lesions with an unknown primary. A 70-year-old woman was admitted to our department with a right submandibular mass. Fine needle aspiration biopsy was performed and indicated malignancy. F-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (PET) demonstrated abnormal accumulation in the right submandibular lymph node, right palatine tonsil, and right thyroid gland. For diagnostics and treatment, bilateral selective neck lymph node dissection, right tonsillectomy, and right thyroidectomy were performed. Histopathological examination revealed that most parts of the submandibular lymph node were occupied by diffuse sheets of tumor cells. Contrary to our expectation, malignant cells were not detected in the right palatine tonsil and right thyroid. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated a marked positive reaction for AE1/AE3, chromogranin A, synaptophysin, cytokeratin 20 (CK20) and CD56 and a negative reaction for vimentin, leucocyte common antigen (LCA), thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF1) and cytokeratin 7 (CK7) in the tumor cells. Immunostaining of Merkel cell polyomavirus-large T antigen (MCPyV-LT) showed a positive reaction and MCPyV-positive MCCs were assessed by PCR analysis, demonstrating that viral copy number was 12.8 copies per cell. These histological findings confirmed the diagnosis of Merkel cell carcinoma of the lymph node. In cases of tumors in the lymph node with a neuroendocrine appearance in head and neck lesions, it is necessary to eliminate the possibility of metastasis from MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoukichi Ikeda
- Division of Otolaryngology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Nobuo Ohta
- Division of Otolaryngology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Sachiko Fukaya
- Division of Pathology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Fumi Shoji
- Division of Otolaryngology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Takahiro Suzuki
- Division of Otolaryngology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Naoya Noguchi
- Division of Otolaryngology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Risako Kakuta
- Division of Otolaryngology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Hayashi
- Division of Molecular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Tottori University Faculty of Medicine, Yonago 683-8503, Japan
| | - Takayoshi Kiba
- Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Regenerative Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Okayama 700-0005, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Murakami
- Division of Pathology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Nakamura
- Division of Pathology, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai 981-0905, Japan
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22
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Chen YJ, Liu X, Tsai B. SV40 Hijacks Cellular Transport, Membrane Penetration, and Disassembly Machineries to Promote Infection. Viruses 2019; 11:v11100917. [PMID: 31590347 PMCID: PMC6832212 DOI: 10.3390/v11100917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
During entry, a virus must be transported through the endomembrane system of the host cell, penetrate a cellular membrane, and undergo capsid disassembly, to reach the cytosol and often the nucleus in order to cause infection. To do so requires the virus to coordinately exploit the action of cellular membrane transport, penetration, and disassembly machineries. How this is accomplished remains enigmatic for many viruses, especially for viruses belonging to the nonenveloped virus family. In this review, we present the current model describing infectious entry of the nonenveloped polyomavirus (PyV) SV40. Insights from SV40 entry are likely to provide strategies to combat PyV-induced diseases, and to illuminate cellular trafficking, membrane transport, and disassembly mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jie Chen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 3043, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Xiaofang Liu
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 3043, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, BSRB 3043, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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23
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Bobrowicz M, Zagozdzon R, Domagala J, Vasconcelos-Berg R, Guenova E, Winiarska M. Monoclonal Antibodies in Dermatooncology-State of the Art and Future Perspectives. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E1420. [PMID: 31554169 PMCID: PMC6826541 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11101420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting specific proteins are currently the most popular form of immunotherapy used in the treatment of cancer and other non-malignant diseases. Since the first approval of anti-CD20 mAb rituximab in 1997 for the treatment of B-cell malignancies, the market is continuously booming and the clinically used mAbs have undergone a remarkable evolution. Novel molecular targets are constantly emerging and the development of genetic engineering have facilitated the introduction of modified mAbs with improved safety and increased capabilities to activate the effector mechanisms of the immune system. Next to their remarkable success in hematooncology, mAbs have also an already established role in the treatment of solid malignancies. The recent development of mAbs targeting the immune checkpoints has opened new avenues for the use of this form of immunotherapy, also in the immune-rich milieu of the skin. In this review we aim at presenting a comprehensive view of mAbs' application in the modern treatment of skin cancer. We present the characteristics and efficacy of mAbs currently used in dermatooncology and summarize the recent clinical trials in the field. We discuss the side effects and strategies for their managing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Radoslaw Zagozdzon
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-006 Warsaw, Poland.
- Department of Immunology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-006 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Joanna Domagala
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.
- Postgraduate School of Molecular Medicine, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Roberta Vasconcelos-Berg
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Emmanuella Guenova
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland.
- Department of Dermatology, University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Magdalena Winiarska
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.
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Femia D, Prinzi N, Anichini A, Mortarini R, Nichetti F, Corti F, Torchio M, Peverelli G, Pagani F, Maurichi A, Mattavelli I, Milione M, Bedini N, Corti A, Di Bartolomeo M, de Braud F, Pusceddu S. Treatment of Advanced Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Current Therapeutic Options and Novel Immunotherapy Approaches. Target Oncol 2019; 13:567-582. [PMID: 30073632 DOI: 10.1007/s11523-018-0585-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Advanced Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a very aggressive, rare neuroendocrine tumor of the skin with a high frequency of locoregional recurrence and metastasis, and a high mortality rate. Surgical resection, sentinel lymph node biopsy, and radiotherapy represent the gold standard of treatment in patients with localized disease, while chemotherapy has a significant role in the treatment of advanced disease. However, no definitive evidence on the survival impact of radiotherapy in the advanced stages has been provided to date, and response to chemotherapy remains brief in the majority of cases, indicating an urgent need for alternative approaches. Biological and genome sequencing studies have implicated multiple molecular pathways in MCC, thus leading to the development of new agents that target angiogenic factors, anti-apoptosis molecules, poly-ADP ribose polymerase, intracellular signal proteins such as the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, and peptide receptors such as somatostatin receptors. More recently, immunotherapy agents such as avelumab, pembrolizumab, and nivolumab, which act by blocking the programmed cell-death (PD)-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint, have shown promising results, especially in the advanced setting, and should now be considered standard of care for metastatic MCC. Current research is focusing on developing new immunotherapeutic strategies, identifying predictive biomarker to aid in the selection of patients responsive to immunotherapy, and defining combination approaches to increase efficacy in refractory patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Femia
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Natalie Prinzi
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Anichini
- Department of Research, Human Tumors Immunobiology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberta Mortarini
- Department of Research, Human Tumors Immunobiology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Nichetti
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Corti
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Martina Torchio
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgia Peverelli
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Filippo Pagani
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Maurichi
- Melanoma and Sarcoma Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, ENETS Center of Excellence, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Mattavelli
- Melanoma and Sarcoma Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, ENETS Center of Excellence, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Milione
- 1st Pathology Division, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori and ENETS Center of Excellence, Milan, Italy
| | - Nice Bedini
- Radiation Oncology 1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Maria Di Bartolomeo
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Filippo de Braud
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy.,University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Pusceddu
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit-1, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano and ENETS Center of Excellence, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy.
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Moens U, Macdonald A. Effect of the Large and Small T-Antigens of Human Polyomaviruses on Signaling Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20163914. [PMID: 31408949 PMCID: PMC6720190 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are intracellular parasites that require a permissive host cell to express the viral genome and to produce new progeny virus particles. However, not all viral infections are productive and some viruses can induce carcinogenesis. Irrespective of the type of infection (productive or neoplastic), viruses hijack the host cell machinery to permit optimal viral replication or to transform the infected cell into a tumor cell. One mechanism viruses employ to reprogram the host cell is through interference with signaling pathways. Polyomaviruses are naked, double-stranded DNA viruses whose genome encodes the regulatory proteins large T-antigen and small t-antigen, and structural proteins that form the capsid. The large T-antigens and small t-antigens can interfere with several host signaling pathways. In this case, we review the interplay between the large T-antigens and small t-antigens with host signaling pathways and the biological consequences of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Andrew Macdonald
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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Abstract
Viruses must navigate the complex endomembranous network of the host cell to cause infection. In the case of a non-enveloped virus that lacks a surrounding lipid bilayer, endocytic uptake from the plasma membrane is not sufficient to cause infection. Instead, the virus must travel within organelle membranes to reach a specific cellular destination that supports exposure or arrival of the virus to the cytosol. This is achieved by viral penetration across a host endomembrane, ultimately enabling entry of the virus into the nucleus to initiate infection. In this review, we discuss the entry mechanisms of three distinct non-enveloped DNA viruses-adenovirus (AdV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and polyomavirus (PyV)-highlighting how each exploit different intracellular transport machineries and membrane penetration apparatus associated with the endosome, Golgi, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane systems to infect a host cell. These processes not only illuminate a highly-coordinated interplay between non-enveloped viruses and their host, but may provide new strategies to combat non-enveloped virus-induced diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsey C Spriggs
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Mara C Harwood
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States; Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States; Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
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27
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Ciotti M, Prezioso C, Pietropaolo V. An overview on human polyomaviruses biology and related diseases. Future Virol 2019. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2019-0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the Polyomaviridae family grew rapidly, thanks to the introduction of high-throughput molecular techniques. To date, 14 polyomaviruses have been identified in humans but the association with human diseases has been established only for few of them. BKPyV has been associated with nephropathy in kidney transplant patients and hemorrhagic cystitis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients; JCPyV to progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, mainly in HIV-positive patients; Merkel cell polyomavirus to Merkel cell carcinoma; Trichodysplasia spinulosa polyomavirus to the rare skin disease Trichodysplasia spinulosa; human polyomaviruses 6 and 7 to pruritic rash. Immunocompromised patients are at risk of developing disease. Here, we summarized and discussed the scientific literature concerning the human polyomaviruses biology, seroprevalence and association with human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ciotti
- Laboratory of Virology, Polyclinic Tor Vergata Foundation, Viale Oxford 81, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Carla Prezioso
- Department of Public Health & Infectious Diseases, ‘Sapienza’ University, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health & Infectious Diseases, ‘Sapienza’ University, 00185 Rome, Italy
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Laikova KV, Oberemok VV, Krasnodubets AM, Gal'chinsky NV, Useinov RZ, Novikov IA, Temirova ZZ, Gorlov MV, Shved NA, Kumeiko VV, Makalish TP, Bessalova EY, Fomochkina II, Esin AS, Volkov ME, Kubyshkin AV. Advances in the Understanding of Skin Cancer: Ultraviolet Radiation, Mutations, and Antisense Oligonucleotides as Anticancer Drugs. Molecules 2019; 24:E1516. [PMID: 30999681 PMCID: PMC6514765 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24081516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin cancer has always been and remains the leader among all tumors in terms of occurrence. One of the main factors responsible for skin cancer, natural and artificial UV radiation, causes the mutations that transform healthy cells into cancer cells. These mutations inactivate apoptosis, an event required to avoid the malignant transformation of healthy cells. Among these deadliest of cancers, melanoma and its 'younger sister', Merkel cell carcinoma, are the most lethal. The heavy toll of skin cancers stems from their rapid progression and the fact that they metastasize easily. Added to this is the difficulty in determining reliable margins when excising tumors and the lack of effective chemotherapy. Possibly the biggest problem posed by skin cancer is reliably detecting the extent to which cancer cells have spread throughout the body. The initial tumor is visible and can be removed, whereas metastases are invisible to the naked eye and much harder to eliminate. In our opinion, antisense oligonucleotides, which can be used in the form of targeted ointments, provide real hope as a treatment that will eliminate cancer cells near the tumor focus both before and after surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateryna V Laikova
- Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, 295051 Simferopol, Crimea.
- Research Institute of Agriculture of Crimea, Kiyevskaya St. 150, 295493, Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Volodymyr V Oberemok
- Taurida Academy, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Vernadsky Av. 4, 295007 Simferopol, Crimea.
- Nikita Botanical Gardens ⁻ National Scientific Centre RAS, Nikitsky spusk 52, vil. Nikita, 298648 Yalta, Crimea.
| | - Alisa M Krasnodubets
- Taurida Academy, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Vernadsky Av. 4, 295007 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Nikita V Gal'chinsky
- Taurida Academy, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Vernadsky Av. 4, 295007 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Refat Z Useinov
- Taurida Academy, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Vernadsky Av. 4, 295007 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Ilya A Novikov
- Taurida Academy, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Vernadsky Av. 4, 295007 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Zenure Z Temirova
- Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, 295051 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Mikhail V Gorlov
- D. Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Miusskaya sq. 9, 125047 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Nikita A Shved
- Centre for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Sukhanova St. 8, 690090 Vladivostok, Russia.
- National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Palchevsky St. 17, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia.
| | - Vadim V Kumeiko
- Centre for Genomic and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biomedicine, Far Eastern Federal University, Sukhanova St. 8, 690090 Vladivostok, Russia.
- National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Palchevsky St. 17, 690041 Vladivostok, Russia.
| | - Tatiana P Makalish
- Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, 295051 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Evgeniya Y Bessalova
- Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, 295051 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Iryna I Fomochkina
- Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, 295051 Simferopol, Crimea.
| | - Andrey S Esin
- D. Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia, Miusskaya sq. 9, 125047 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Mikhail E Volkov
- Ltd "NPF Syntol", Тimiryazevskaya St. 42, 127434 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Anatoly V Kubyshkin
- Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky, V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, 295051 Simferopol, Crimea.
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Karbalaie Niya MH, Safarnezhad Tameshkel F, Alemrajabi M, Taherizadeh M, Keshavarz M, Rezaee M, Keyvani H. Molecular survey on Merkel cell polyomavirus in patients with colorectal cancer. MEDICAL JOURNAL OF INDONESIA 2018. [DOI: 10.13181/mji.v27i4.2759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) has been associated with Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) in humans, and its role in other human cancers is under investigation. The aim of this study was to investigate MCV genome infection in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC).Methods: This retrospective, case-control study used archived formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue samples from colorectal cancer patients (cases) and matched healthy subjects (controls) diagnosed by an expert pathologist from hospitals affiliated with Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran from 2011 to 2016. After DNA extraction with a QIAamp® DNA FFPE Tissue Kit, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used for diagnosis. A positive control was produced by cloning with the Generay Biotechnology system. SPSS v.22 was used for analysis of demographic variables.Results: There were 157 participants included in the study: 66 were cases and 91 were controls. Their mean ages (±SD) were 59.35±14.48 and 57.21±14.66, respectively. The proportion of males was 57.6% in the case group and 57.1% in the control group. None of the samples were positive for MCV expression by real-time PCR assay. Association was detected between males with CRC and tumor location in the rectum and between males with CRC and the mucinous tumor type.Conclusion: None of the tissues from the CRC or non-cancerous control groups were positive for MCV genome infection, although a low viral load, the sample type, or the method of use should not be neglected. Further studies are recommended to obtain more comprehensive results.
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Vazquez-Guillen JM, Palacios-Saucedo GC, Rivera-Morales LG, Alonzo-Morado MV, Burciaga-Bernal SB, Montufar-Martinez M, Ortiz-Lopez R, Gonzalez-Villasana V, Martinez-Torres AC, Serna-Hernandez JC, Hernandez-Martinez SJ, Castelan-Maldonado EE, Zavala-Pompa A, Montalvo-Bañuelos MS, Garcia-Cabello R, Sanchez-Fresno EC, Rodriguez-Padilla C. Infection and coinfection by human papillomavirus, Epstein-Barr virus and Merkel cell polyomavirus in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx: a retrospective study. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5834. [PMID: 30386708 PMCID: PMC6203941 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human papillomavirus (HPV) is recognized as an important risk factor for laryngeal carcinogenesis. Although HPV-16 and 18 have been strongly implicated, the presence of other high-risk HPV (HR-HPV) genotypes or the coinfection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPV) may increase the risk, but their etiological association has not been definitively established. Methods We characterized the genotype-specific HPV and the frequency of EBV and MCPV infections through the detection of their DNA in 195 laryngeal specimens of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) histologically confirmed. Results HPV DNA was detected in 93 (47.7%) specimens. HPV-11 was the most frequent with 68 cases (73.1%), and HPV-52 was the most frequently HR-HPV found with 51 cases, which corresponds to 54.8% of all HPV-positive specimens. EBV DNA was detected in 54 (27.7%) tumor tissue specimens of which 25 (46.3%) were in coinfection with HPV. MCPV DNA was detected only in 11 (5.6%) cases of which 5 (45.4%) were in coinfection with an HR-HPV. No association between the presence of DNA of the three examined viruses and the patient smoking habits, alcohol consumption, age, the keratinization status, differentiation grade, or localization of the tumor in the larynx were found. Discussion HPV-52 was the most prevalent HR-HPV, which may suggest that this and other genotypes in addition to HPV-16 and 18 could be considered for prophylaxis. However, further studies including non-cancer larynx cases and the evaluation of other molecular markers and viral co-infection mechanisms are needed to determine the role of the different HR-HPV genotypes, EBV, and MCPV in the etiology of SCC of the larynx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Manuel Vazquez-Guillen
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Gerardo C Palacios-Saucedo
- División de Investigación, Departamentos de Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Lydia Guadalupe Rivera-Morales
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Monica Valeria Alonzo-Morado
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Saira Berenice Burciaga-Bernal
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Maribel Montufar-Martinez
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Rocio Ortiz-Lopez
- Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo Léon, México
| | - Vianey Gonzalez-Villasana
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Ana Carolina Martinez-Torres
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Julio Cesar Serna-Hernandez
- División de Investigación, Departamentos de Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Silvia Judith Hernandez-Martinez
- División de Investigación, Departamentos de Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Edmundo Erbey Castelan-Maldonado
- División de Investigación, Departamentos de Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Angel Zavala-Pompa
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | | | - Ricardo Garcia-Cabello
- División de Investigación, Departamentos de Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Ethel Corinthia Sanchez-Fresno
- División de Investigación, Departamentos de Otorrinolaringología y Anatomía Patológica, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad No. 25, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - Cristina Rodriguez-Padilla
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
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MicroRNAs as Potential Biomarkers in Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19071873. [PMID: 29949882 PMCID: PMC6073391 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19071873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive type of skin cancer associated with a poor prognosis. This carcinoma was named after its presumed cell of origin, the Merkel cell, which is a mechanoreceptor cell located in the basal epidermal layer of the skin. Merkel cell polyomavirus seems to be the major causal factor for MCC because approximately 80% of all MCCs are positive for viral DNAs. UV exposure is the predominant etiological factor for virus-negative MCCs. Intracellular microRNA analysis between virus-positive and virus-negative MCC cell lines and tumor samples have identified differentially expressed microRNAs. Comparative microRNA profiling has also been performed between MCCs and other non-MCC tumors, but not between normal Merkel cells and malignant Merkel cells. Finally, Merkel cell polyomavirus encodes one microRNA, but its expression in virus-positive MCCs is low, or non-detectable or absent, jeopardizing its biological relevance in tumorigenesis. Here, we review the results of microRNA studies in MCCs and discuss the potential application of microRNAs as biomarkers for the diagnosis, progression and prognosis, and treatment of MCC.
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32
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Davies SI, Muranski P. T cell therapies for human polyomavirus diseases. Cytotherapy 2017; 19:1302-1316. [PMID: 28927823 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Rapid restoration of virus-specific T immunity via adoptive transfer of ex vivo generated T cells has been proven as a powerful therapy for patients with advanced cancers and refractory viral infections such as cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). BK virus (BKV), John Cunningham virus (JCV), and Merkel cell carcinoma virus (MCV) are the members of the rapidly growing human polyomavirus (hPyV) family that commonly infects most healthy humans. These viruses have a clearly established potential for causing severe end-organ damage or malignant transformation, especially in individuals with weakened immunity who are unable to mount or regain endogenous T-cell responses as a result of underlying leukemia or iatrogenic immunosuppression in autoimmunity, bone marrow and solid organ transplant settings. Here we will discuss recent advances in using T-cell-based immunotherapies to save patients suffering from PyV-associated diseases including hemorrhagic cystitis, BKV virus-associated nephropathy, and JC-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). We will also review progress in the understanding of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) as a virally driven tumor that is amenable to immune intervention and can be targeted with adoptively transferred T cells specific for viral oncoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah I Davies
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Pawel Muranski
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
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Müller-Richter UDA, Gesierich A, Kübler AC, Hartmann S, Brands RC. Merkel Cell Carcinoma of the Head and Neck: Recommendations for Diagnostics and Treatment. Ann Surg Oncol 2017; 24:3430-3437. [PMID: 28762116 PMCID: PMC5596053 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-017-5993-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive tumor that often occurs in the head and neck region. Because of these features, the classifications and diagnostic and treatment regimens are frequently modified. Especially in the anatomically complex head and neck region, it is crucial to be aware of the current recommendations for diagnostics and treatment of MCC to ensure appropriate treatment. This overview aims to summarize the currently available literature. Methods The authors reviewed the relevant literature and international guidelines for MCC from 2012 to 2017 with respect to epidemiology and prognosis, diagnostic procedures and imaging, surgery, radiation, systemic treatment, and aftercare. These results were compared with existing guidelines, some of them current, and recommendations were derived. Results Marked developments in imaging have resulted in an increased use of functional imaging. The surgical concepts have changed regarding safety margins and the use of sentinel node biopsies. In systemic treatment, a move from conventional agents toward immuno-oncology can be observed. Conclusions For staging, it is important to be as exact as possible using functional imaging (e.g., positron emission tomography/computed tomography scan), especially in the head and neck area with its complex lymph drainage. This often plays an especially important role in early stages of the tumor, when the resection margin can be reduced to preserve the organ. Aftercare also should include functional imaging. In an advanced, metastatic stage, immuno-oncology (PD-1, PD-L1, CTLA-4) is superior to the previous methods of systemic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anja Gesierich
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Hartmann
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Plastic Surgery, Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research, Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Roman Camillus Brands
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Plastic Surgery, Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany
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Knips J, Czech-Sioli M, Spohn M, Heiland M, Moll I, Grundhoff A, Schumacher U, Fischer N. Spontaneous lung metastasis formation of human Merkel cell carcinoma cell lines transplanted into scid mice. Int J Cancer 2017; 141:160-171. [PMID: 28380668 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer entity that frequently leads to rapid death due to its high propensity to metastasize. The etiology of most MCC cases is linked to Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), a virus which is monoclonally integrated in up to 95% of tumors. While there are presently no animal models to study the role of authentic MCPyV infection on transformation, tumorigenesis or metastasis formation, xenograft mouse models employing engrafted MCC-derived cell lines (MCCL) represent a promising approach to study certain aspects of MCC pathogenesis. Here, the two MCPyV-positive MCC cell lines WaGa and MKL-1 were subcutaneously engrafted in scid mice. Engraftment of both MCC cell lines resulted in the appearance of circulating tumor cells and metastasis formation, with WaGa-engrafted mice showing a significantly shorter survival time as well as increased numbers of spontaneous lung metastases compared to MKL-1 mice. Interestingly, explanted tumors compared to parental cell lines exhibit an upregulation of MCPyV sT-Antigen expression in all tumors, with WaGa tumors showing significantly higher sT-Antigen expression than MKL-1 tumors. RNA-Seq analysis of explanted tumors and parental cell lines furthermore revealed that in the more aggressive WaGa tumors, genes involved in inflammatory response, growth factor activity and Wnt signalling pathway are significantly upregulated, suggesting that sT-Antigen is the driver of the observed differences in metastasis formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill Knips
- Institute of Anatomy and Experimental Morphology, University Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Manja Czech-Sioli
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Heinrich-Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Research Group Virus Genomics, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael Spohn
- Heinrich-Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Research Group Virus Genomics, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Max Heiland
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingrid Moll
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich-Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Research Group Virus Genomics, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Udo Schumacher
- Institute of Anatomy and Experimental Morphology, University Cancer Center, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Fischer
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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Nghiem P, Kaufman HL, Bharmal M, Mahnke L, Phatak H, Becker JC. Systematic literature review of efficacy, safety and tolerability outcomes of chemotherapy regimens in patients with metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma. Future Oncol 2017; 13:1263-1279. [PMID: 28350180 PMCID: PMC6040046 DOI: 10.2217/fon-2017-0072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare neuroendocrine, cutaneous malignancy with poor prognosis once metastasized. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic literature review to assess clinical outcomes associated with chemotherapy regimens in metastatic MCC. MATERIALS & METHODS Embase®, MEDLINE®, MEDLINE®-In-Process and CENTRAL were searched for studies published in January 2016. RESULTS & CONCLUSION Overall, the literature on chemotherapy in patients with metastatic MCC is sparse, with most studies being case series/reports. Across all studies, response rates ranged from 20 to 61%, with higher response rates in first-line setting (53-61%) versus second-line setting (23-45%). Among responders, duration of response was short (≤8 months) in both first- and second-line settings. There is a need for novel agents that can induce durable responses in metastatic MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Nghiem
- Division of Dermatology, University of Washington Medical School, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98195-8050, USA
| | - Howard L Kaufman
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
| | | | - Lisa Mahnke
- Global Research and Early Development, EMD Serono, Billerica, Boston, MA 01821, USA
| | - Hemant Phatak
- Health Economics and Outcomes Research, EMD Serono, Rockland, MA 02370, USA
| | - Jürgen C Becker
- Translational Skin Cancer Research, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner site Essen Düsseldorf, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
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36
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Bhattacharjee S, Chattaraj S. Entry, infection, replication, and egress of human polyomaviruses: an update. Can J Microbiol 2017; 63:193-211. [DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2016-0519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Polyomaviruses (PyVs), belonging to the family Polyomaviridae, are a group of small, nonenveloped, double-stranded, circular DNA viruses widely distributed in the vertebrates. PyVs cause no apparent disease in adult laboratory mice but cause a wide variety of tumors when artificially inoculated into neonates or semipermissive animals. A few human PyVs, such as BK, JC, and Merkel cell PyVs, have been unequivocally linked to pathogenesis under conditions of immunosuppression. Infection is thought to occur early in life and persists for the lifespan of the host. Over evolutionary time scales, it appears that PyVs have slowly co-evolved with specific host animal lineages. Host cell surface glycoproteins and glycolipids seem to play a decisive role in the entry stage of viral infection and in channeling the virions to specific intracellular membrane-bound compartments and ultimately to the nucleus, where the genomes are replicated and packaged for release. Therefore the transport of the infecting virion or viral genome to this site of multiplication is an essential process in productive viral infection as well as in latent infection and transformation. This review summarizes the major findings related to the characterization of the nature of the interactions between PyV and host protein and their impact in host cell invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumen Bhattacharjee
- Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, Raja Rammohunpur, P.O. North Bengal University, Siliguri, District Darjeeling, West Bengal, PIN 734013, India
- Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, Raja Rammohunpur, P.O. North Bengal University, Siliguri, District Darjeeling, West Bengal, PIN 734013, India
| | - Sutanuka Chattaraj
- Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, Raja Rammohunpur, P.O. North Bengal University, Siliguri, District Darjeeling, West Bengal, PIN 734013, India
- Cell and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, Raja Rammohunpur, P.O. North Bengal University, Siliguri, District Darjeeling, West Bengal, PIN 734013, India
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Abstract
Cancer has been recognized for thousands of years. Egyptians believed that cancer occurred at the will of the gods. Hippocrates believed human disease resulted from an imbalance of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile with cancer being caused by excess black bile. The lymph theory of cancer replaced the humoral theory and the blastema theory replaced the lymph theory. Rudolph Virchow was the first to recognize that cancer cells like all cells came from other cells and believed chronic irritation caused cancer. At the same time there was a belief that trauma caused cancer, though it never evolved after many experiments inducing trauma. The birth of virology occurred in 1892 when Dimitri Ivanofsky demonstrated that diseased tobacco plants remained infective after filtering their sap through a filter that trapped bacteria. Martinus Beijerinck would call the tiny infective agent a virus and both Dimitri Ivanofsky and Marinus Beijerinck would become the fathers of virology. Not to long thereafter, Payton Rous founded the field of tumor virology in 1911 with his discovery of a transmittable sarcoma of chickens by what would come to be called Rous sarcoma virus or RSV for short. The first identified human tumor virus was the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), named after Tony Epstein and Yvonne Barr who visualized the virus particles in Burkitt's lymphoma cells by electron microscopy in 1965. Since that time, many viruses have been associated with carcinogenesis including the most studied, human papilloma virus associated with cervical carcinoma, many other anogenital carcinomas, and oropharyngeal carcinoma. The World Health Organization currently estimates that approximately 22% of worldwide cancers are attributable to infectious etiologies, of which viral etiologies is estimated at 15-20%. The field of tumor virology/viral carcinogenesis has not only identified viruses as etiologic agents of human cancers, but has also given molecular insights to all human cancers including the oncogene activation and tumor suppressor gene inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Smith
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - L A Smith
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, United States.
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How Polyomaviruses Exploit the ERAD Machinery to Cause Infection. Viruses 2016; 8:v8090242. [PMID: 27589785 PMCID: PMC5035956 DOI: 10.3390/v8090242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To infect cells, polyomavirus (PyV) traffics from the cell surface to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where it hijacks elements of the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) machinery to penetrate the ER membrane and reach the cytosol. From the cytosol, the virus transports to the nucleus, enabling transcription and replication of the viral genome that leads to lytic infection or cellular transformation. How PyV exploits the ERAD machinery to cross the ER membrane and access the cytosol, a decisive infection step, remains enigmatic. However, recent studies have slowly unraveled many aspects of this process. These emerging insights should advance our efforts to develop more effective therapies against PyV-induced human diseases.
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Knopf A, Bas M, Hofauer B, Mansour N, Stark T. Clinicopathological characteristics of head and neck Merkel cell carcinomas. Head Neck 2016; 39:92-97. [PMID: 27447124 DOI: 10.1002/hed.24540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are still controversies about the therapeutic strategies and subsequent outcome in head and neck Merkel cell carcinoma. METHODS Clinicopathological data of 23 Merkel cell carcinomas, 93 cutaneous head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs), 126 malignant melanomas, and 91 primary parotid gland carcinomas were comprehensively analyzed. Merkel cell carcinomas were cytokeratin 20 (CK20)/neuron-specific enolase (NSE)/chromogranin A (CgA)/synaptophysin (Syn)/thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1)/MIB1 immunostained. RESULTS All Merkel cell carcinomas underwent wide local excision. Parotidectomy/neck dissection was performed in 40%/33% cutaneous Merkel cell carcinoma and 100%/100% in parotid gland Merkel cell carcinoma. Five-year recurrence-free interval (RFI)/overall survival (OS) was significantly higher in malignant melanoma (81/80%) than in cutaneous Merkel cell carcinoma/HNSCC. Interestingly, 5-year RFI/OS was significantly higher in Merkel cell carcinoma (61%/79%) than in HNSCC (33%/65%; p < .0001) despite comparable TNM classifications and treatment regimens. There were neither differences of RFI/OS between parotid gland Merkel cell carcinoma and parotid gland carcinomas, nor in the immunohistochemical profile. CONCLUSION Five-year RFI/OS was significantly better in cutaneous Merkel cell carcinoma when compared with TNM classification matched HNSCC. Five-year RFI/OS was comparable in parotid gland Merkel cell carcinoma and other primary parotid gland malignancies. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 39: 92-97, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Knopf
- Technische Universität München, Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik und Poliklinik, München, Germany
| | - Murat Bas
- Technische Universität München, Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik und Poliklinik, München, Germany
| | - Benedikt Hofauer
- Technische Universität München, Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik und Poliklinik, München, Germany
| | - Naglaa Mansour
- Technische Universität München, Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik und Poliklinik, München, Germany
| | - Thomas Stark
- Technische Universität München, Hals-Nasen-Ohrenklinik und Poliklinik, München, Germany
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40
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Cestaro G, Festa P, Cricrì AM, Antropoli M, Castriconi M. Unexpected histopathologic result of a wide surgical excision of a bleeding lesion of the skin: a case of Merkel cell carcinoma of the leg. G Chir 2016; 36:231-5. [PMID: 26712262 DOI: 10.11138/gchir/2015.36.5.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Merkel cell Carcinoma is a very rare primary cutaneous tumor that often looks like an innocuous and asymptomatic nodule or plaque of the skin, but with a very fast growing. It is also called neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin or trabecular cancer. The main treatment is based on a local excision followed by radiotherapy or chemotherapy. The most common site of presentation of this lesion is head and neck (40-60%.) and it often occur in older men with immunological system dysfunction like HIV patients, cancer, severe infections and immunosuppression for transplantation. METHODS The authors report a case of a bleeding Merkel Cell Carcinoma of the right leg in a 83 years old man with HCV infection, chronic kidney disease and diabetes mellitus type 2 that required local excision. RESULTS Lesion was entirely removed and then patient was sent to oncologists. After two months from surgical excision, healing process is regular and without complications. CONCLUSIONS This type of tumor can be misdiagnosed and, if bleeding, it can represent a serious surgical emergency.
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Reversal of epigenetic silencing of MHC class I chain-related protein A and B improves immune recognition of Merkel cell carcinoma. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21678. [PMID: 26902929 PMCID: PMC4763224 DOI: 10.1038/srep21678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a virally associated cancer characterized by its aggressive behavior and strong immunogenicity. Both viral infection and malignant transformation induce expression of MHC class I chain-related protein (MIC) A and B, which signal stress to cells of the immune system via Natural Killer group 2D (NKG2D) resulting in elimination of target cells. However, despite transformation and the continued presence of virally-encoded proteins, MICs are only expressed in a minority of MCC tumors in situ and are completely absent on MCC cell lines in vitro. This lack of MIC expression was due to epigenetic silencing via MIC promoter hypo-acetylation; indeed, MIC expression was re-induced by pharmacological inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs) both in vitro and in vivo. This re-induction of MICs rendered MCC cells more sensitive to immune-mediated lysis. Thus, epigenetic silencing of MICs is an important immune escape mechanism of MCCs.
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42
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Abstract
Viral and bacterial infections are involved in the development of human cancers, such as liver, nasopharyngeal, cervical, head and neck, and gastric cancers. Aberrant DNA methylation is frequently present in these cancers, and some of the aberrantly methylated genes are causally involved in cancer development and progression. Notably, aberrant DNA methylation can be present even in non-cancerous or precancerous tissues, and its levels correlate with the risk of cancer development, producing a so-called 'epigenetic field for cancerization'. Mechanistically, most viral or bacterial infections induce DNA methylation indirectly via chronic inflammation, but recent studies have indicated that some viruses have direct effects on the epigenetic machinery of host cells. From a translational viewpoint, a recent multicenter prospective cohort study demonstrated that assessment of the extent of alterations in DNA methylation in non-cancerous tissues can be used to predict cancer risk. Furthermore, suppression of aberrant DNA methylation was shown to be a useful strategy for cancer prevention in an animal model. Here, we review the involvement of aberrant DNA methylation in various types of infection-associated cancers, along with individual induction mechanisms, and we discuss the application of these findings for cancer prevention, diagnosis, and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Hattori
- Division of Epigenomics, National Cancer Center Research Institute, 5-1-1 Tsukiji, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0045, Japan
| | - Toshikazu Ushijima
- Division of Epigenomics, National Cancer Center Research Institute, 5-1-1 Tsukiji, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0045, Japan.
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43
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Miles BA, Goldenberg D. Merkel cell carcinoma: Do you know your guidelines? Head Neck 2015; 38:647-52. [PMID: 26716756 DOI: 10.1002/hed.24359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a cutaneous neuroendocrine malignancy that exhibits clinically aggressive features and is associated with a poor prognosis. The incidence of MCC seems to be increasing for reasons unknown, and is estimated to be 0.32/100,000 in the United States. METHODS This article will review the current literature and National Comprehensive Cancer Network practice guidelines in the treatment of MCC. RESULTS Resection of MCC with negative margins remains the mainstay of therapy. Positive nodal disease should be treated with neck dissection and adjuvant radiotherapy. High-risk patients should undergo adjuvant radiotherapy, which improves oncologic outcomes. The role of chemotherapy is less clear and is currently reserved for advanced-stage MCC and palliative therapy. CONCLUSION The pathogenesis of MCC has recently been impacted with the discovery of the Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Research to establish targeted and immunologic therapeutic options are ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett A Miles
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - David Goldenberg
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, The Pennsylvania State University, College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania
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Saini AT, Miles BA. Merkel cell carcinoma of the head and neck: pathogenesis, current and emerging treatment options. Onco Targets Ther 2015; 8:2157-67. [PMID: 26316785 PMCID: PMC4548751 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s72202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a relatively uncommon, neuroendocrine, cutaneous malignancy that often exhibits clinically aggressive features and is associated with a poor prognosis. It typically presents as a painless, rapidly enlarging, dome-shaped red or purplish nodule in a sun-exposed area of the head and neck or upper extremities. Our understanding of MCC has increased dramatically over the last several years and the pathogenesis continues to be an area of active research. The etiology is likely multifactorial with immunosuppression, UV-induced skin damage, and viral factors contributing to the development of MCC. The recent discovery of Merkel cell polyomavirus has allowed for at least one aspect of disease development to be much better understood. In most cases, treatment consists of wide local excision with adjuvant radiation therapy. The role of chemotherapeutics is still being defined. The recent advancement of knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of MCC has led to an explosion research into novel therapeutic agents and strategies. This review seeks to summarize the current body of literature regarding the pathogenesis of MCC and potential targets for future therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alok T Saini
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, NY, USA
| | - Brett A Miles
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, NY, USA
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45
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Batinica M, Akgül B, Silling S, Mauch C, Zigrino P. Correlation of Merkel cell polyomavirus positivity with PDGFRα mutations and survivin expression in Merkel cell carcinoma. J Dermatol Sci 2015; 79:43-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Transformation with oncogenic Ras and the simian virus 40 T antigens induces caspase-dependent sensitivity to fatty acid biosynthetic inhibition. J Virol 2015; 89:6406-17. [PMID: 25855740 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03671-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Oncogenesis is frequently accompanied by the activation of specific metabolic pathways. One such pathway is fatty acid biosynthesis, whose induction is observed upon transformation of a wide variety of cell types. Here, we explored how defined oncogenic alleles, specifically the simian virus 40 (SV40) T antigens and oncogenic Ras(12V), affect fatty acid metabolism. Our results indicate that SV40/Ras(12V)-mediated transformation of fibroblasts induces fatty acid biosynthesis in the absence of significant changes in the concentration of fatty acid biosynthetic enzymes. This oncogene-induced activation of fatty acid biosynthesis was found to be mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) dependent, as it was attenuated by rapamycin treatment. Furthermore, SV40/Ras(12V)-mediated transformation induced sensitivity to treatment with fatty acid biosynthetic inhibitors. Pharmaceutical inhibition of acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) carboxylase (ACC), a key fatty acid biosynthetic enzyme, induced caspase-dependent cell death in oncogene-transduced cells. In contrast, isogenic nontransformed cells were resistant to fatty acid biosynthetic inhibition. This oncogene-induced sensitivity to fatty acid biosynthetic inhibition was independent of the cells' growth rates and could be attenuated by supplementing the medium with unsaturated fatty acids. Both the activation of fatty acid biosynthesis and the sensitivity to fatty acid biosynthetic inhibition could be conveyed to nontransformed breast epithelial cells through transduction with oncogenic Ras(12V). Similar to what was observed in the transformed fibroblasts, the Ras(12V)-induced sensitivity to fatty acid biosynthetic inhibition was independent of the proliferative status and could be attenuated by supplementing the medium with unsaturated fatty acids. Combined, our results indicate that specific oncogenic alleles can directly confer sensitivity to inhibitors of fatty acid biosynthesis. IMPORTANCE Viral oncoproteins and cellular mutations drive the transformation of normal cells to the cancerous state. These oncogenic alterations induce metabolic changes and dependencies that can be targeted to kill cancerous cells. Here, we find that the cellular transformation resulting from combined expression of the SV40 early region with an oncogenic Ras allele is sufficient to induce cellular susceptibility to fatty acid biosynthetic inhibition. Inhibition of fatty acid biosynthesis in these cells resulted in programmed cell death, which could be rescued by supplementing the medium with nonsaturated fatty acids. Similar results were observed with the expression of oncogenic Ras in nontransformed breast epithelial cells. Combined, our results suggest that specific oncogenic alleles induce metabolic dependencies that can be exploited to selectively kill cancerous cells.
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47
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Viruses and human cancers: a long road of discovery of molecular paradigms. Clin Microbiol Rev 2015; 27:463-81. [PMID: 24982317 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00124-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
About a fifth of all human cancers worldwide are caused by infectious agents. In 12% of cancers, seven different viruses have been causally linked to human oncogenesis: Epstein-Barr virus, hepatitis B virus, human papillomavirus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus, hepatitis C virus, Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus, and Merkel cell polyomavirus. Here, we review the many molecular mechanisms of oncogenesis that have been discovered over the decades of study of these viruses. We discuss how viruses can act at different stages in the complex multistep process of carcinogenesis. Early events include their involvement in mutagenic events associated with tumor initiation such as viral integration and insertional mutagenesis as well as viral promotion of DNA damage. Also involved in tumor progression is the dysregulation of cellular processes by viral proteins, and we describe how this has been investigated by studies in cell culture and in experimental animals and by molecular cellular approaches. Also important are the molecular mechanisms whereby viruses interact with the immune system and the immune evasion strategies that have evolved.
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48
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Zheng X, Liu D, Fallon JT, Zhong M. Distinct genetic alterations in small cell carcinoma from different anatomic sites. Exp Hematol Oncol 2015; 4:2. [PMID: 25937998 PMCID: PMC4417281 DOI: 10.1186/2162-3619-4-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Small cell carcinoma (SmCC) is a distinct clinicopathological entity first described in the lung. It represents approximately 15% of all bronchogenic carcinoma. Extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma (EPSmCC) morphologically indistinguishable from small cell lung cancer (SCLC) was first reported in 1930. Since its first description, EPSmCC has been reported in virtually all anatomical sites, including: gynecologic organs (ovary and cervix); genitourinary organs (urinary bladder and prostate); the gastrointestinal tract (esophagus); skin (Merkel cell carcinoma) and head and neck region. Regardless of the anatomic sites, all SmCCs have similar, if not identical, histo-pathology features and immunohistochemical profile. SmCC is one of the most aggressive malignancies. The molecular mechanisms underlying its development and progression remain poorly understood. Herein, we reviewed the literature in SmCC in respect to its site of occurrence, clinical features, immunohistochemical characteristics. SmCCs have heterogeneous molecular mutations. Dinstinct genetic alterations associated with SmCC from different body sites were reviewed. Some genetic alterations such as RB1, TP53 are commonly seen in different origins of SmCC. Other genes with site specificity were also summarized, such as bladder SmCC with TERT promoter mutations; prostate SmCC with ERG translocations; ovarian SmCC with SMARCA4 mutations; Merkel cell carcinoma (skin) and cervical SmCC with Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV or MCPyV) and human papillomavirus (HPV). Further studies are needed to employ a genetically oriented approach for the diagnosis and therapy of SmCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyong Zheng
- Department of Pathology, Westchester Medical Center/New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY USA
| | - Delong Liu
- Henan Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - John T Fallon
- Department of Pathology, Westchester Medical Center/New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY USA
| | - Minghao Zhong
- Department of Pathology, Westchester Medical Center/New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY USA
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49
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Abstract
Adult skin stem cells do not protect their genome by asymmetric chromosome segregation; thus, they are prone to accumulating oncogenic mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen C Becker
- Division of General Dermatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
| | - Axel Zur Hausen
- Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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50
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Lucas RM, Norval M, Neale RE, Young AR, de Gruijl FR, Takizawa Y, van der Leun JC. The consequences for human health of stratospheric ozone depletion in association with other environmental factors. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015; 14:53-87. [DOI: 10.1039/c4pp90033b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Ozone depletion, climate and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. M. Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health
- The Australian National University
- Canberra 2601
- Australia
- Telethon Kids Institute
| | - M. Norval
- Biomedical Sciences
- University of Edinburgh Medical School
- Edinburgh EH8 9AG
- UK
| | - R. E. Neale
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute
- Brisbane 4029
- Australia
| | - A. R. Young
- King's College London (KCL)
- St John's Institute of Dermatology
- London SE1 9RT
- UK
| | - F. R. de Gruijl
- Department of Dermatology
- Leiden University Medical Centre
- NL-2300 RC Leiden
- The Netherlands
| | - Y. Takizawa
- Akita University Graduate School of Medicine
- Akita Prefecture
- Japan
- National Institute for Minamata Diseases
- Kumamoto Prefecture
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