Pathological features of primary breast cancer in the elderly based on needle core biopsies—A large series from a single centre

Nanoparticle-Based Combination Therapy Enhances Fulvestrant Efficacy and Overcomes Tumor Resistance in ER-Positive Breast Cancer

Nanoparticles (NP) spanning diverse materials and properties have the potential to encapsulate and to protect a wide range of therapeutic cargos to increase bioavailability, to prevent undesired degradation, and to mitigate toxicity. Fulvestrant, a selective estrogen receptor degrader, is commonly used for treating patients with estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer, but its broad and continual application is limited by poor solubility, invasive muscle administration, and drug resistance. Here, we developed an active targeting motif-modified, intravenously injectable, hydrophilic NP that encapsulates fulvestrant to facilitate its delivery via the bloodstream to tumors, improving bioavailability and systemic tolerability. In addition, the NP was coloaded with abemaciclib, an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6), to prevent the development of drug resistance associated with long-term fulvestrant treatment. Targeting peptide modifications on the NP surface assisted in the site-specific release of the drugs to ensure specific toxicity in the tumor tissues and to spare normal tissue. The NP formulation (PPFA-cRGD) exhibited efficient tumor cell killing in both in vitro organoid models and in vivo orthotopic ER-positive breast cancer models without apparent adverse effects, as verified in mouse and Bama miniature pig models. This NP-based therapeutic provides an opportunity for continual and extensive clinical application of fulvestrant, thus indicating its promise as a treatment option for patients with ER-positive breast cancer.

SIGNIFICANCE

A smart nanomedicine encapsulating fulvestrant to improve its half-life, bioavailability, and tumor-targeting and coloaded with CDK4/6 inhibitor abemaciclib to block resistance is a safe and effective therapy for ER-positive breast cancer.

Characteristics and chronologically changing patterns of late-onset breast cancer in Korean women of age ≥ 70 years: A hospital based-registry study

BACKGROUND

Women from Asian and western countries have vastly different ages of onset of breast cancer, with the disease tending to occur at an older age in the West. Through an investigation of the patterns of old-onset breast cancer (OBC) in Korean women, we aimed to identify the characteristics of Korean OBC and evaluate whether these patterns are changing in relation to increasing westernization.

METHODS

This study retrospectively evaluated 102,379 patients who underwent surgical treatment of primary breast cancer between January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2013 in Korea. We used hospital -based breast cancer registry and analyzed data from these patients using multiple linear regression analysis to compare the characteristics and chronologically changing patterns between OBC (70 years of age or older) and non-OBC (40-69 years of age) patients in Korea.

RESULTS

A total of 6% of the 102,379 patients had OBC. Overall, OBC had more favorable biological features, such as a higher incidence of luminal A subtype, than did non-OBC, except for a higher incidence rate of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, OBC also presented with a higher overall disease stage, including higher T and M stages. Although the incidence rates of both OBC and non-OBC have increased overtime, the relative proportion of OBC patients has slightly increased, whereas that of non-OBC has slightly decreased. The increase in the incidence of both OBC and non-OBC was primarily due to the luminal A subtype.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on a hospital-based registry, overall, Korean OBC had favorable biological features but showed a higher rate of TNBC and advanced cancer stages. The incidence trend of breast cancer in Korea is slowly shifting toward an older age at onset, largely due to the luminal A subtype. Our results may provide novel insights into OBC in Asia, and aid in the development of optimal management of the disease in Asia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Retrospectively registered.

Treatment and survival outcomes in older women with primary breast cancer: A retrospective propensity score-matched analysis

PURPOSE

Changes in biological features and functional status make management decisions in older women with primary breast cancer complicated. We aimed to provide an overview of the clinicopathological characteristics and survival outcomes of older breast cancer patients based on the current treatment strategies.

METHODS

Female patients diagnosed with primary invasive breast cancer at Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Centre from 2008 to 2016 were included. Patients were divided into a younger group (<65 years) and older group (≥65 years). Propensity score matching was utilised to generate balanced cohorts.

RESULTS

A total of 13,707 patients met the study criteria. Compared with younger patients, older patients had a higher Charlson Comorbidity Index (p < 0.001), less lymph node metastasis (p = 0.009), more advanced tumour stage (p = 0.038), and a larger proportion of estrogen receptor-positive (p < 0.001) and epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (p < 0.001) tumours. Older patients were likely to receive mastectomy and axillary lymph node dissection in addition to a lower proportion of adjuvant chemotherapy. Adjuvant chemotherapy (HR [hazard ratio] 0.69, p = 0.039) was independently correlated with better overall survival in the older patients. This survival benefit (HR 0.58, p = 0.041) was confirmed in matched cohorts. Among the older patients with larger tumours (HR 0.48, p = 0.038) and more lymph node involvement (HR 0.44, p = 0.040), adjuvant chemotherapy was associated with a significant survival benefit.

CONCLUSION

Older breast cancer patients showed less aggressive biological characteristics, intensive surgical and moderate medical preferences. The addition of adjuvant chemotherapy should be considered for older patients, especially for patients with large tumours and more lymph node involvement.

Systematic review of the evidence sources applied to cost-effectiveness analyses for older women with primary breast cancer

OBJECTIVE

To appraise the sources of evidence and methods to estimate input parameter values in decision-analytic model-based cost-effectiveness analyses of treatments for primary breast cancer (PBC) in older patients (≥ 70 years old).

METHODS

Two electronic databases (Ovid Medline, Ovid EMBASE) were searched (inception until 5 September-2021) to identify model-based full economic evaluations of treatments for older women with PBC as part of their base-case target population or age-subgroup analysis. Data sources and methods to estimate four types of input parameters including health-related quality of life (HRQoL); natural history; treatment effect; resource use were extracted and appraised. Quality assessment was completed by reference to the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards.

RESULTS

Seven model-based economic evaluations were included (older patients as part of their base-case (n = 3) or subgroup (n = 4) analysis). Data from younger patients (< 70 years) were used frequently to estimate input parameters. Different methods were adopted to adjust these estimates for an older population (HRQoL: disutility multipliers, additive utility decrements; Natural history: calibration of absolute values, one-way sensitivity analyses; Treatment effect: observational data analysis, age-specific behavioural parameters, plausible scenario analyses; Resource use: matched control observational data analysis, age-dependent follow-up costs).

CONCLUSION

Improving estimated input parameters for older PBC patients will improve estimates of cost-effectiveness, decision uncertainty, and the value of further research. The methods reported in this review can inform future cost-effectiveness analyses to overcome data challenges for this population. A better understanding of the value of treatments for these patients will improve population health outcomes, clinical decision-making, and resource allocation decisions.

Metastasis patterns and prognosis in breast cancer patients aged ≥ 80 years: a SEER database analysis

Background: This study aimed to investigate the metastasis patterns and prognosis of breast cancer (BC) in patients aged ≥ 80 years with distant metastases, as the current literature lacks studies in this population.

Methods: A retrospective, population-based study using data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database was conducted to evaluate 36,203 patients with BC from 2010 to 2016. Patients were classified into three groups, the older group (aged ≥ 80 years), middle-aged group (aged 60-79 years), and younger group (aged < 60 years). The role of age at the time of BC diagnosis in metastasis patterns was investigated, and the survival of different age groups of patients with BC was assessed.

Results: Overall, 4,359 (12%) patients were diagnosed with BC at age ≥ 80 years, 19,688 (54%) at 60-79 years, and 12,156 (34%) at < 60 years. Compared with the other two groups, those in the older group had a lower rate of treatment acceptance. Statistical analysis revealed that older patients were more likely to have lung invasion only (odds ratio [OR]: 1.274, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.163-2.674) and less likely to have bone invasion only (OR: 0.704, 95% CI: 0.583-0.851), brain invasion only (OR: 0.329, 95% CI: 0.153-0.706), or multiple metastatic sites (OR: 0.361, 95% CI: 0.284-0.458) compared to the other two groups. Age at diagnosis was an independent prognostic factor for survival. The older group had the worst overall survival (OS, P<0.001) and BC-specific survival (CSS, P<0.001). Furthermore, patients aged ≥ 80 years with only liver metastasis had the worst CSS and OS.

Conclusion: Patients aged ≥ 80 years were less likely to be receptive to cancer-related therapy and had the highest cancer mortality rate among all patients. Our findings will hopefully help clinicians develop more appropriate modalities of cancer treatment in elderly BC patients.

Mucinous carcinoma in an octogenarian: Treatment and management of breast cancer in the elderly

Age is a risk factor for breast cancer in females, and over 60% of female breast cancer deaths occur in those aged 65 and older. As the population in the United States continues to age, it is expected that there will be a commensurate increase in the number of women diagnosed with breast cancer, making understanding of effective treatment and management of breast cancer in the elderly essential.

Here, we review the treatment and management of early breast cancer in the elderly. We report a case of invasive mucinous carcinoma in an 80-year-old female detected on routine clinical breast exam by her primary care physician. Mucinous carcinoma of the breast is a type of rare invasive neoplasm that generally carries an excellent prognosis. Following an ultrasound-guided core needle biopsy, a right breast needle localized segmental mastectomy was performed and the patient was prescribed an aromatase inhibitor for hormone-receptor positive tumor. After a follow-up of 8 years, the patient remains free of recurrence or metastasis and vibrantly living meaningful daily life.

Breast cancer in elderly Korean women: clinicopathological and biological features

BACKGROUND

With an aging society, Korean women ≥70 years of age are increasingly being diagnosed with breast cancer.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the clinicopathological and biological characteristics of breast cancer in elderly Korean women and compare them with breast cancer in elderly (≥70 years) women globally and in Korean women of all ages.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the clinicopathological and biological features of breast cancer in elderly Korean women (≥70 years; n = 87) who sought treatment during 2004-2014 from a single institution. These data were indirectly compared with data of Korean women of all ages (nationwide Korean Breast Cancer Registry) or elderly women globally (meta-analysis).

RESULTS

Compared to elderly women with breast cancer globally, Korean elderly women had a more symptomatic presentation, lower ER expression, and overexpression or amplification of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2. Compared to Korean women of all ages with breast cancer, elderly Korean women presented with advanced tumor stages, larger tumor size, more lymph node involvement, and more luminal B and basal-like subtypes.

CONCLUSIONS

Breast cancer had a more aggressive clinicopathological and biological characteristics in elderly Korean women than in Korean women of all ages or elderly women globally.

Age-Related Biology of Early-Stage Operable Breast Cancer and Its Impact on Clinical Outcome

Simple Summary

Breast cancer incidence not only increases with advancing age but also changes its biology. This study was conducted to understand aging related change in the biological characteristics of breast cancer. The results highlighted that the change occurs in a gradual fashion, where 40 years and 70 years become the milestones for significant difference. Breast cancer in patients <40 years showed aggressive characteristics while at 70 years and above they are more indolent. The molecular pattern between 40 years and 70 years appears to be a transition from aggressive to less aggressive phenotypes. This change in the biology of the breast cancer significantly influences clinical outcome.

Abstract

As age advances, breast cancer (BC) tends to change its biological characteristics. This study aimed to explore the natural progression of such changes. The study included 2383 women with clinically T0-2N0-1M0 BC, managed by primary surgery and optimal adjuvant therapy in a dedicated BC facility. Tissue micro-arrays were constructed from their surgical specimens and indirect immunohistochemistry was used for analysis of a large panel (n = 16) of relevant biomarkers. There were significant changes in the pattern of expression of biomarkers related to luminal (oestrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptors (PgR), human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER-2), E-cadherin, MUC1, bcl2 CK7/8, CK18 and bcl2) and basal (CK5/6, CK14, p53 and Ki67) phenotypes, lymph node stage, histological grade and pathological size when decade-wise comparison was made (p < 0.05). The ages of 40 years and 70 years appeared to be the milestones marking a change of the pattern. There were significantly higher metastasis free and breast cancer specific survival rates among older women with ER positive tumours while there was no significant difference in the ER negative group according to age. Biological characteristics of BC show a pattern of change with advancing age, where 40 years and 70 years appear as important milestones. The pattern suggests <40 years as the phase with aggressive phenotypes, >70 years as the less aggressive phase and 40–70 years being the transitional phase.

Biology of Oestrogen-Receptor Positive Primary Breast Cancer in Older Women with Utilisation of Core Needle Biopsy Samples and Correlation with Clinical Outcome

The majority of biological profiling studies use surgical excision (SE) samples, excluding patients receiving nonsurgical and neoadjuvant therapy. We propose using core needle biopsy (CNB) for biological profiling in older women. Over 37 years (1973–2010), 1 758 older (≥70 years) women with operable primary breast cancer attended a dedicated clinic. Of these, 693 had sufficient quality CNB to construct tissue microarray (TMA). The pattern of biomarkers was analysed in oestrogen receptor (ER)-positive cases, using immunohistochemistry and partitional clustering analysis. The biomarkers measured were: progesterone receptor (PgR), Ki67, Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR), Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (HER)-2, HER3, HER4, p53, cytokeratins CK5/6 and CK7/8, Mucin (MUC)1, liver kinase B1 (LKB1), Breast Cancer Associated gene (BRCA) 1, B-Cell Lymphoma (BCL)-2, phosphate and tensin homolog (PTEN), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and Amplified in breast cancer 1 (AIB1). CNB TMA construction was possible in 536 ER-positive cases. Multivariate analysis showed progesterone receptor (PgR) (p = 0.015), Ki67 (p = 0.001), and mucin (MUC)1 (p = 0.033) as independent predictors for breast-cancer-specific survival (BCSS). Cluster analysis revealed three biological clusters, which were consistent with luminal A, luminal B, and low-ER luminal. The low-ER luminal cluster had lower BCSS compared to luminal A and B. The presence of the low-ER luminal cluster unique to older women, identified in a previous study in SE TMAs in the same cohort, is confirmed. This present study is novel in its use of core needle biopsy tissue microarrays to profile the biology of breast cancer in older women.

Cytoplasmic Cyclin E Is an Independent Marker of Aggressive Tumor Biology and Breast Cancer-Specific Mortality in Women over 70 Years of Age

Multi-cohort analysis demonstrated that cytoplasmic cyclin E expression in primary breast tumors predicts aggressive disease. However, compared to their younger counterparts, older patients have favorable tumor biology and are less likely to die of breast cancer. Biomarkers therefore require interpretation in this specific context. Here, we assess data on cytoplasmic cyclin E from a UK cohort of older women alongside a panel of >20 biomarkers. Between 1973 and 2010, 813 women ≥70 years of age underwent initial surgery for early breast cancer, from which a tissue microarray was constructed (n = 517). Biomarker expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry. Multivariate analysis of breast cancer-specific survival was performed using Cox's proportional hazards. We found that cytoplasmic cyclin E was the only biological factor independently predictive of breast cancer-specific survival in this cohort of older women (hazard ratio (HR) = 6.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.93-20.14; p = 0.002). At ten years, 42% of older patients with cytoplasmic cyclin E-positive tumors had died of breast cancer versus 8% of negative cases (p < 0.0005). We conclude that cytoplasmic cyclin E is an exquisite marker of aggressive tumor biology in older women. Patients with cytoplasmic cyclin E-negative tumors are unlikely to die of breast cancer. These data have the potential to influence treatment strategy in older patients.

Endocrine Therapy for Breast Cancer: A Model of Hormonal Manipulation

Oestrogen receptor (ER) is the driving transcription factor in 70% of breast cancer. Endocrine therapies targeting the ER represent one of the most successful anticancer strategies to date. In the clinic, novel targeted agents are now being exploited in combination with established endocrine therapies to maximise efficacy. However, clinicians must balance this gain against the risk to patients of increased side effects with combination therapies. This article provides a succinct outline of the principles of hormonal manipulation in breast cancer, alongside the key evidence that underpins current clinical practice. As the role of endocrine therapy in breast cancer continues to expand, the challenge is to interpret the data and select the optimal strategy for a given clinical scenario.

Fulvestrant for the treatment of advanced breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

The current issues with endocrine therapy for treatment of advanced breast cancer include balance of efficacy of therapy versus tolerability as well as hormone resistance. The efficacy of fulvestrant, a selective oestrogen receptor degrader (SERD), has been demonstrated in hormone receptor positive patients previously untreated or treated with hormonal therapy. Areas covered: This article discusses the journey of fulvestrant licensing, its efficacy in combination with other endocrine therapies and the future role it may have within breast cancer treatment. Expert commentary: Within phase III trials, fulvestrant has demonstrated equivalent or improved clinical efficacy when compared with established endocrine agents. In the recent decade, fulvestrant has achieved licensing as a second line agent in non-operative advanced breast cancer at initially 250mg, increasing to 500mg. Presently, fulvestrant is licensed globally as first line endocrine management for advanced breast cancer in post-menopausal women. Early combination trials of fulvestrant and cyclin dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors have demonstrated good clinical efficacy with improved progression free survival when compared to fulvestrant alone.

A Continuing Mission to Optimize the Care of Older Women with Breast Cancer

The majority of cases of breast cancer occur in the older population who are often un-represented in clinical trials. Given the growing ageing population globally, it becomes urgent and important to identify an optimal approach so that older women with breast cancer are neither under- or over-treated. An inter-disciplinary research program is ongoing to investigate differing tumor biology according to age, and the potential use of a geriatric assessment tool, aiming to help select older women with primary breast cancer for a personalized and optimal treatment. Full considerations of the biology of the patient’s cancer and the geriatric domains of the patient must be taken into account when making treatment decisions.

Primary Endocrine Therapy in Older Women with Breast Cancer

Purpose of Review

Breast cancer incidence increases with age. In recent years, primary endocrine therapy has been increasingly used as a treatment option for frail elderly women with breast cancer, although surgery is still the guideline-recommended treatment. In this review, we discuss the evidence for primary endocrine therapy versus surgical treatment in older women with early breast cancer.

Recent Findings

Both randomised controlled trials and recent observational studies showed a favourable progression-free survival but not overall survival for surgery plus adjuvant endocrine therapy versus primary endocrine therapy. Information about quality of life with either treatment strategy is so far lacking. Deciding who is fit for surgery and has sufficiently long life expectation to be at risk of disease progression can be supported by performing an individual geriatric assessment.

Summary

This review suggests that primary endocrine therapy is a reasonable alternative to primary surgery in frail older women with breast cancer. Future studies should focus on the long-term effects on quality of life and physical functioning.

Breast cancer in elderly women and altered clinico-pathological characteristics: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women in terms of incidence and mortality. Age is undoubtedly the biggest breast cancer risk factor. In this study we examined clinical, histological, and biological characteristics and mortality of breast cancer in elderly women along with their changes with advancing age.

METHODS

We reviewed 63 original articles published between 2006 and 2016 concerning women over 70 years with breast cancer.

RESULTS

Compared to patients 70-79 years, patients aged 80 and over had larger tumor size with fewer T1 (42.9% vs 57.7%, p < 0.01) and more T2 lesions (43.5% vs 33.0%, p < 0.01). Lymph nodes and distant metastases were more frequent, with more N + (49.5% vs 44.0%, p < 0.01) and more M1 (8.0% vs 5.9%, p < 0.01). Infiltrating mucinous carcinomas were more frequent (4.3% vs 3.7%, p < 0.01). Tumors had lower grades, with more grade 1 (23.2% vs 19.8%, p = 0.01) and fewer grade 3 (21.5% vs 25.5%, p < 0.01), and were more hormone-sensitive: PR was more often expressed (72.6% vs 67.3%, p < 0.01). Lympho-vascular invasion was less frequent in the 80 years and over (22.9% vs 29.7%, p = 0.01). Breast cancer-specific mortality was higher both at 5 years (25.8% vs 17.2%, p < 0.01) and 10 years (32.7% vs 26.6%, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Clinico-pathological characteristics, increased incidence, and mortality associated with aging can be explained on one hand by biological changes of the breast such as increased estrogen sensitivity, epithelial cell alterations, immune senescence, and tumor microenvironment modifications. However, sociologic factors such as increased life expectancy, under-treatment, late diagnosis, and insufficient individual screening, are also involved.

Early-Stage Breast Cancer in the Elderly: Confronting an Old Clinical Problem

Breast cancer generally develops in older women and its incidence is continuing to increase with increasing age of the population. The pathology and biology of breast cancer seem to be different in the elderly, often resulting in the undertreatment of elderly patients and thus in higher rates of recurrence and mortal-ity. The aim of this review is to describe the differences in the biology and treatment of early breast cancer in the elderly as well as the use of geriatric assessment methods that aid decision-making. Provided there are no contraindications, the cornerstone of treatment should be surgery, as the safety and efficacy of surgical resection in elderly women have been well documented. Because most breast cancers in the elderly are hormone responsive, hormonal therapy remains the mainstay of systemic treatment in the adjuvant setting. The role of chemotherapy is limited to patients who test negative for hormone receptors and demonstrate an aggressive tumor profile. Although the prognosis of breast cancer patients has generally improved during the last few decades, there is still a demand for evidence-based optimization of therapeutic interventions in older patients.

Primary breast cancer in the elderly: a systematic literature review on histological type and clinical outcome

The objective was to determine whether histological types of breast cancer in elderly women influence clinical outcome. Four major databases were searched. All relevant articles, from January 1990 to December 2013, were screened. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 11 studies were included. Invasive ductal carcinoma was the commonest (68.5-87.1%) histological type, followed by lobular carcinoma (6.9-17.7%). Four studies reported on survival. However, none specifically looked at survival according to different histological types. There are very little data on the influence of histological type on clinical outcome in primary breast cancer in elderly patients. Further studies may elucidate any potential influence and its relationship with tumor biology.

The role of primary endocrine therapy in older women with operable breast cancer

ABSTRACT 

A Cochrane review of randomized trials shows no difference in overall survival between surgery and primary endocrine therapy (PET) in older women with operable primary breast cancer. Most of these trials were small and unselected for estrogen receptor (ER) status. Evidence exists showing a significant correlation between the degree of ER-positivity and response and outcome in patients receiving PET. Although surgery remains the treatment of choice, patients with ER-rich tumors tend to do equally well on PET. When deciding optimal therapies, co-morbidities and frailty (which impact on the likelihood of death due to competing causes), patient choice, agent of choice (notably the third-generation aromatase inhibitors) and biology (more than just being ER-positive) should all be taken into account.

Performance of digital screening mammography among older women in the United States

BACKGROUND

Although healthy women aged 65 years have a life expectancy of 20 years, there is a paucity of data on the performance of digital screening mammography among these women. The authors examined the performance and outcomes of digital screening mammography among a national group of women aged ≥65 years.

METHODS

From Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium data for the years 2005 to 2011, the authors included 296,496 full-field digital screening mammograms among 133,042 women ages ≥65 years without a history of breast cancer. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV1 ), recall rates, and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated across the spectrum of age and breast density. Multivariate logistic regression was used to compare mammography accuracy, cancer-detection rates (CDRs), and tumor characteristics by age and breast density.

RESULTS

Multivariate analyses revealed a significant decrease in the recall rate with age (P for linear trend [Ptrend ] < .001) and significant increases in specificity, PPV1 , and CDR with age (Ptrend  < .001, Ptrend  < .001, and Ptrend  = .01, respectively). Sensitivity did not vary significantly with age. Among women with cancer, the proportion with invasive disease increased with age from 76% at ages 65 to 74 years to 81% at ages ≥80 years. There was a higher proportion of late stage cancers and positive lymph nodes among women ages 65 to 74 years compared with women in the older age groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The specificity, PPV1 , recall rate, and CDR of digital screening mammography improved with increased age. In addition, as age increased, the proportion of women with invasive versus ductal carcinoma in situ rose, whereas the proportion of women with positive lymph nodes decreased.

Management of operable primary breast cancer in older women

A considerable number of breast cancer diagnoses are made in older women. Differing physiological needs of older patients and biology of tumors compared with younger patients may alter treatment options between surgery and nonsurgical primary approaches. Adjuvant therapies may benefit these patients; however, concerns about toxicity and physical demands of treatment may affect patient choice regarding treatment. Furthermore, quality of life may be more important to the older individual than curative treatment alone. Growing evidence is emerging for employing Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment to determine other factors that may contribute to treatment decision-making in the older population. The way geriatric oncology is delivered varies, bringing the importance of the multidisciplinary team to the forefront of care delivery in this age group. Future research in this area should include combined consideration of tumor biology and geriatric needs.

A study of ductal versus non-ductal invasive breast carcinomas in older women: long-term clinical outcome and comparison with their younger counterparts

Ductal carcinoma is the commonest histological type found in invasive breast carcinomas and may be associated with worse prognosis, when compared to non-ductal carcinoma. Older patients tend to display more favourable tumour biology than younger patients. This study aimed to investigate the significance of histological type and its relationship with clinical outcome in the older group. A total of 808 older (≥70 years) women with early operable primary breast cancer underwent surgery as their primary treatment, followed by optimal adjuvant therapies, in the Nottingham Breast Unit between 1973 and 2009. The histological types of the surgical specimens were reviewed and compared with those in a previously characterised younger (<70 years) series (N = 1,733), in terms of distribution and correlation with clinical outcome. Ductal type was associated with a significantly worse clinical outcome when compared to non-ductal type in the older group in terms of 10-year rates of metastasis-free survival (75 vs 79 %, p = 0.028) and overall survival (44 vs 52 %; p = 0.015). Similar worse clinical outcome was found with the ductal type in the younger group in terms of 10-year rates of metastasis-free survival (65 vs 79 %; p = 0.001) and overall survival (60 vs 78 %; p = 0.001). For all patients with ductal type carcinomas, the older series showed significantly better 10-year metastasis-free survival (75 vs 65 %, p < 0.001) and breast cancer-specific survival (75 vs 69 %, p = 0.025) when compared to the younger series. In both old and the young, ductal cancers were associated with poor survival outcome when compared to non-ductal cancers. When compared to their younger counterparts, older patients with ductal type carcinomas had better metastasis-free and breast cancer-specific survival rates (their lower overall survival was likely to be due to death from other causes), despite having a lower likelihood of receiving adjuvant systemic therapy.

Biological characteristics and clinical outcome of triple negative primary breast cancer in older women - comparison with their younger counterparts

Triple negative (ER, PgR and HER2 negative) breast cancers (TNBCs) are often considered as a poor prognostic phenotype. There is dearth of evidence showing the prevalence and biological behaviour of TNBCs in older women. This study aimed to analyse their biological characteristics in comparison with a well characterised younger series from a single centre with long term clinical follow-up. Over 37 years (1973-2010), 1,758 older (≥70 years) women with early operable (<5 cm) primary breast cancer were managed in a dedicated clinic and have complete clinical information available. Of these 813 patients underwent primary surgery and 575 had good quality tumour samples available for tissue microarray analysis using indirect immunohistochemistry. A total of 127 patients (22.1%) had TNBCs and full biological analysis of 15 biomarkers was performed. The results were compared with those of their younger (<70 years) counterparts 342 (18.9%) from a previously characterised, consecutive series of primary breast cancer treated in the same unit (1986-1998). The 127 older patients with TNBCs showed lower rates of Ki67 and CK 7/8 positivity and high rates of bcl2 and CK18 positivity when compared with their younger counterparts (p<0.05). There was no significant difference in the long term clinical outcome between the two age groups, despite the fact that 47% of the younger patients had adjuvant chemotherapy, while none in the older cohort received such treatment. EGFR, axillary stage and pathological size showed prognostic significance in older women with TNBCs on univariate analysis. Despite not having received adjuvant chemotherapy, the older series had clinical outcome similar to the younger patients almost half of whom had chemotherapy. This appears to be related to other biomarkers (in addition to ER/PgR/HER2) eg Ki67, bcl2 and cytokeratins which have different expression patterns influencing prognosis.

Human epidermal growth receptor-2 overexpressing early operable primary breast cancers in older (≥70 years) women: biology and clinical outcome in comparison with younger (<70 years) patients

INTRODUCTION

There is dearth of literature reporting the prevalence and biological characteristics as well as the long-term clinical outcome of human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) overexpressing tumours in older women. Currently, research involving trastuzumab at large focuses on the younger population. This study aimed to analyse their biological characteristics and to compare them with their younger counterparts from a single centre with a long-term clinical follow-up.

METHODS

Over 37 years (1973-2010), 1758 older (≥70 years) women with early operable (<5 cm) primary breast cancer were managed in a dedicated clinic and have complete clinical information available. Of these, 813 patients underwent primary surgery and 575 had good quality tumour samples available for tissue microarray analysis using indirect immunohistochemistry. Comparison was made with data from a well-characterised younger (<70 years) series (N = 1711) treated between 1986 and 1998 (before adjuvant trastuzumab became standard) in our institution. Forty five (7.6%) and 140 (8.2%) patients from the older and younger series, respectively, had HER2-positive tumours.

RESULTS

HER2 overexpression was seen in 45 (7.6%) older women and 140 (8.2%) in younger patients (P = 0.56). HER2 overexpressing tumours in older women when compared with that in their younger counterparts were associated with low Ki67 and high bcl2 expression (P < 0.05). Only 26% of the younger patients and none of the older patients received adjuvant chemotherapy, and no patients at the time received trastuzumab. However, there was no significant difference in the outcome of the two age groups (5-year breast cancer-specific survival rate: <70 years = 65% versus >70 years = 70%, P = 0.51).

CONCLUSION

HER2 overexpressing tumours in older women showed relatively a less aggressive phenotype and did not show any inferior long-term clinical outcome despite not having received chemotherapy when compared with the younger patients. The precise role of different adjuvant systemic therapies in this population needs to be delineated.

Impact of body mass index on prognostically relevant breast cancer tumor characteristics

BACKGROUND

This study analyzes the association of body mass index (BMI) and prognostically relevant breast cancer (BC) characteristics in a country that has been rather spared of the global obesity epidemic.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Based on 20-year data (1999-2009, n = 1,414) of the prospective relational BC database of the University Hospital Basel, Switzerland, the associations between BMI, tumor size and stage, histological subtype, grading, hormonal receptor status, HER2 status and 'triple-negative' status were evaluated. Multivariate analysis considered BMI and patient's age.

RESULTS

The association between increasing BMI and the above-mentioned variables were as follows (results described in each case: Beta-coefficient or odds ratio, 95% confidence interval, p value): tumor size, (1) entire cohort: 0.03 (0.01-0.05), p < 0.001, (2) tumor found by self-palpation: 0.05 (0.03-0.07), p < 0.001, (3) tumor found by radiological examination: 0.03 (0-0.07), p = 0.044; advanced TNM stage: 1.16 (1.02-1.31), p = 0.022; histological subtype: 1.04 (0.89-1.22), p = 0.602; unfavorable grading: 1.11 (1.00-1.25), p = 0.057; positive estrogen receptor status: 0.95 (0.83-1.09), p = 0.459; positive HER2 status: 0.92 (0.74-1.15), p = 0.467; presence of a 'triple-negative' carcinoma: 1.19 (0.93-1.52), p = 0.165. Consideration of only postmenopausal BC patients (n = 1,063) did attenuate the results, but did not change the direction of the associations with BMI.

CONCLUSION

BMI was positively associated with TNM stage, grading and tumor size for tumors that were found by self-detection, as well as for those lesions detected by radiological breast examinations.

Biology of primary breast cancer in older women treated by surgery: with correlation with long-term clinical outcome and comparison with their younger counterparts

Background:

As age advances breast cancer appears to change its biological characteristics, however, very limited data are available to define the precise differences between older and younger patients.

Methods:

Over 36 years (1973–2009), 1758 older (⩾70 years) women with early operable primary breast cancer were managed in a dedicated clinic. In all, 813 underwent primary surgery and 575 good quality tumour samples were available for biological analysis. The pattern of biomarkers was analysed using indirect immunohistochemistry on tissue microarrays. Comparison was made with a previously characterised series of younger (<70 years) patients.

Results:

There was high expression of oestrogen receptor (ER), PgR, Bcl2, Muc1, BRCA1 and 2, E-cadherin, luminal cytokeratins, HER3, HER4, MDM2 and 4 and low expression of human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER)-2, Ki67, p53, EGFR and CK17. Oestrogen receptor and axillary stage appeared as independent prognostic factors. Unsupervised partitional clustering showed six biological clusters in older patients, five of which were common in the younger patients, whereas the low ER luminal cluster was distinct in the older series. The luminal phenotype showed better breast cancer-specific survival, whereas basal and HER2-overexpressing tumours were associated with poor outcome.

Conclusion:

Early operable primary breast cancer in older women appears as a distinct biological entity, with existence of a novel cluster. Overall older women showed less aggressive tumour biology and ER appeared as an independent prognostic factor alongside the time-dependent axillary stage. These biological characteristics may explain the differences in clinical outcome and should be considered in making therapeutic decisions.

Aromatase inhibitors in the treatment of elderly women with metastatic breast cancer

The proportion of elderly women in the population is rising, and in tandem, the incidence of breast cancer rises with age. Because of health and tolerability concerns, as well as life expectancy, physicians may be reluctant to advise a standard treatment regimen for elderly patients with metastatic breast cancer. To elucidate this issue, we performed a literature review of clinical studies that included women with metastatic breast cancer who were over the age of 65. Our results show that although little clinical evidence exists, what is available suggests that standard treatment is tolerated and beneficial for patients meeting certain criteria. A geriatric assessment may identify specific patient groups (independent, dependent, or frail) and thereby guide treatment. Treatment recommendations for elderly patients with metastatic breast cancer are sparse, although first-line endocrine treatment, usually aromatase inhibitors or tamoxifen, is recommended for hormone-sensitive disease. In general, the evidence from clinical studies suggests that aromatase inhibitors are more effective than either tamoxifen or megestrol acetate as first- or second-line treatment in postmenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer. Ultimately, quality of life, treatment effects, and comorbidities are important aspects in this population and may guide treatment choice. To provide evidence-based treatment guidance, future clinical trials should include more patients over the age of 65 years.

Early operable breast cancer in elderly women treated with an aromatase inhibitor letrozole as sole therapy

BACKGROUND

Primary endocrine therapy (PET) with aromatase inhibitors (AIs) is an option in elderly patients unfit for or unwilling to undergo surgery. We studied the outcome of patients treated with letrozole as PET.

METHODS

Patients with early oestrogen receptor (ER)/progesterone receptor (PR)-positive breast cancer treated with letrozole from February 2001 to September 2009 were reviewed. Inoperable and locally advanced tumours were excluded. Reasons for offering PET, response, survival, cause of death, time to initial and best response, fracture incidence, and late failure rates were studied.

RESULTS

In all, 104 patients received PET due to frailty (n=48), comorbidity (n=30), old age (n=9), and patient preference (n=17). Median follow-up was 56 months (4-106). Eighty-five cancers responded to letrozole (stable disease (SD, n=19), reduction in size (PR, n=42), and complete response ((CR), n=24)). Median survival was 51 months (4-103), time to initial response (PR/CR) 4.5 months (2-24), and time to best response 8.5 months (3-50). Letrozole was stopped in 25 patients due to progressive disease (n=19), side effects (n=5), and patient choice (n=1). Only 12 of 49 deaths were from breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Letrozole is a reasonable alternative in elderly women with early ER/PR-positive invasive breast cancer who are unfit or unwilling to undergo standard therapy.

Influence of comorbidities and age on risk of death without recurrence: a retrospective analysis of the Arimidex, Tamoxifen Alone or in Combination trial

PURPOSE

The Arimidex, Tamoxifen Alone or in Combination (ATAC) study was a double-blind randomized trial in which postmenopausal women with early-stage breast cancer were assigned to receive anastrozole, tamoxifen, or the combination. We have conducted a retrospective analysis to examine the effects of comorbidities and age on treatment received, breast cancer-related mortality, and competing causes of mortality.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The current analyses were based on 10-year median follow-up data in the two monotherapy arms (anastrozole, n = 3,092; tamoxifen, n = 3,094) of the ATAC study. Baseline comorbidities and tumor and treatment characteristics were compared between women age less than 70 years and women age ≥ 70 years. The cumulative incidence of breast cancer-related and non-breast cancer-related mortality was assessed according to age and comorbidities.

RESULTS

One thousand six hundred sixty-two patients (27%) were age ≥ 70 years at study entry. Older women were more likely to undergo mastectomy (odds ratio [OR], 1.92; 95% CI, 1.71 to 2.16) and less likely to receive radiotherapy (OR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.44 to 0.55) or chemotherapy (OR, 0.24; 95% CI, 0.18 to 0.29). Women age ≥ 70 years had an increased risk of recurrence compared with women age less than 70 years (hazard ratio [HR], 1.21; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.37) and a substantially increased risk of death without recurrence (HR, 4.13; 95% CI, 3.53 to 4.83). The risk of death without recurrence increased with comorbidity score (10-year estimates of 8.4%, 20.0%, and 30.4% for Satariano score 0, 1, and 2+, respectively; P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Age influences the risk of recurrence, and age and comorbidities significantly influence the risk of death without recurrence. Formal assessment of comorbidities should be incorporated into decisions regarding adjuvant therapies.

Optimising the management of primary breast cancer in older women - a report of a multi-disciplinary study day

PURPOSE

The objectives of the study day were to (i) develop an in-depth understanding around the biology and treatment options; (ii) explore the specific physical and psychosocial needs and consideration including patients perspective; and (iii) gain insight into the development of a dedicated, holistic and multi-disciplinary clinic service and the importance of supporting research, for older women with primary breast cancer.

DESIGN

The format included presentations (with lectures from external and local faculty, and short research papers from Nottingham) with a number of interactive discussions, and sharing of patients' experience.

RESULTS

Four sessions were held covering (i) pathological features, (ii) role of radiotherapy and adjuvant chemotherapy, (iii) role of surgery, geriatric assessment and quality of life issues, and (iv) challenges in running research trials.

CONCLUSIONS

A dedicated and joint team approach is required to improve clinical service and support research, in order to optimise the management of primary breast cancer in older women.

Long-term clinical outcome of oestrogen receptor-positive operable primary breast cancer in older women: a large series from a single centre

INTRODUCTION

A Cochrane review of seven randomised trials (N=1571) comparing surgery and primary endocrine therapy (PET) (oestrogen receptor (ER) unselected) shows no difference in overall survival (OS). We report outcome of a large series with ER-positive (ER+) early invasive primary breast cancer.

METHODS

Between 1973 and 2009, 1065 older (≥ 70 years) women (median age 78 years (70-99)) had either surgery (N=449) or PET (N=616) as initial treatment.

RESULTS

At 49-month median follow-up (longest 230 months), the 5-year breast cancer-specific survival (BCSS) and OS were 90 and 62%, respectively. Majority (74.2%) died from causes other than breast cancer. The rates (per annum) of local/regional recurrence (<1%) (following surgery), contralateral tumour (<1%) and metastases (<3%) were low. For patients on PET, 97.9% achieved clinical benefit (CB) at 6 months, with median time to progression of 49 months (longest 132 months) and significantly longer BCSS when compared with those who progressed (P<0.001). All patients with strongly ER+ (H-score >250) tumours achieved CB and had better BCSS (P<0.01). Patients with tumours having an H-score >250 were found to have equivalent BCSS regardless of treatment (surgery or PET; P=0.175), whereas for those with H-score ≤ 250, surgery produced better outcome (P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Older women with ER+ breast cancer appear to have excellent long-term outcome regardless of initial treatment. Majority also die from non-breast cancer causes. Although surgery remains the treatment of choice, patients with ER-rich (H-score >250) tumours tend to do equally well when treated by PET. This should be taken into account when therapies are considered.

Perioperative complications of breast cancer surgery in elderly women (≥80 years)

PURPOSE

There has been much controversy regarding the optimal management of breast cancer in very elderly women. Some clinicians are reluctant to offer surgical treatment for women older than aged 80 years because of the assumed higher operative risk associated with advanced age. This study was designed to investigate the perioperative complications of breast cancer surgery in women of this age group.

METHODS

Data were reviewed of all women ≥80 years of age who underwent breast cancer surgery at a university clinic during the period 1990-2005. Symptoms, comorbidities, preoperative risk assessment, type of operation, postoperative histological diagnosis, hospital stay, morbidity, and mortality were documented and analyzed.

RESULTS

During this 16-year period, 140 operations for breast cancer were performed in 129 women. The majority of the patients (37.9%) underwent a modified radical mastectomy, 32.1% underwent a simple mastectomy, 24.3% underwent breast-conserving therapy, and 5.7% underwent an axillary lymph node dissection. Complications occurred in 37.1% of the cohort: 31.4% were minor complications and only 5.7% were major. Intraoperative morbidity was 18.6% and postoperative morbidity was 20%. Late complications occurred in 5% of patients. The most common complications were associated with the wound region (50%). The perioperative mortality in this group of elderly women was zero.

CONCLUSIONS

Breast cancer surgery has acceptable perioperative morbidity and mortality in women aged ≥80 years. Surgery is the cornerstone of breast cancer treatment and should be offered as first-line treatment for all patients regardless of their age.

Does primary breast cancer in older women (≥80 years) have unfavorable histological characteristics?

INTRODUCTION

Although the majority of breast cancer patients are older than 65 years, limited data exist regarding the pathological features in very elderly patients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the histological characteristics of breast cancer in women aged over 80 years.

METHODS

The histological data were reviewed for 137 women aged 80 years and older who were diagnosed with primary breast carcinoma at a university clinic during the period 1990-2005.

RESULTS

Although it is believed that older women have more advanced tumor, the majority of the tumors were assessed as stage I (35%) and II (32.9%). Mucinous, papillary, medullary, tubular, and cribriform histological subtypes have been demonstrated often in this age group (16.8%). In 49.7 and 70.6% of cases, respectively, there were no regional lymph node metastases and no distant metastases. The frequency of ER-positive (72%) and PR-positive (56%) tumors in these patients is high.

CONCLUSIONS

An accurate prognostic evaluation at the time of initial diagnosis is of high importance for older patients, since this could avoid unnecessary and risky therapies. As an increasing number of women ≥80 years old may be diagnosed with breast cancer in the coming years, treatment in this specific age group should be individualized to the patient and tumor factors.

Age and axillary lymph node ratio in postmenopausal women with T1-T2 node positive breast cancer

PURPOSE

The purpose of this article was to examine the relationship between age and lymph node ratio (LNR, number of positive nodes divided by number of examined nodes), and to determine their effects on breast cancer (BC) and overall mortality.

METHODS

Women aged ≥50 years, diagnosed in 1988-1997 with a unilateral histologically confirmed T1-T2 node positive surgically treated primary nonmetastatic BC, were selected from the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER). Generalized Additive Models for Location Scale and Shape (GAMLSS) were used to evaluate the age-LNR relationship. Cumulative incidence functions and multivariate competing risks analysis based on model selection by the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) were used to examine the effect of age and LNR on mortality. Low LNR was defined as ≤0.20, mid-LNR 0.21-0.65, and high LNR >0.65.

RESULTS

GAMLSS showed a nonlinear LNR-age relationship, increasing from mean LNR 0.26-0.28 at age 50-70 years to 0.30 at 80 years and 0.40 at 90 years. Compared with a 9.8% [95% confidence interval (CI) 8.8%-10.8%] risk of BC death at 5 years in women aged 50-59 years with low LNR, the risk in women ≥80 years with low LNR was 12.6% [95% CI 10.1%-15.0%], mid-LNR 18.1% [13.9%-22.1%], high LNR 29.8% [22.7%-36.1%]. Five-years overall risk of death increased from 40.8% [37.5%-43.9%] by low LNR to 67.4% [61.4%-72.4%] by high LNR. The overall mortality hazard ratio for age ≥80 years with high LNR was 7.49 [6.54-8.59], as compared with women aged 50-59 years with low LNR.

CONCLUSION

High LNR combined with older age was associated with a threefold increased risk of BC death and a sevenfold increased hazard ratio of overall mortality.

A randomised trial of mastectomy only versus tamoxifen for treating elderly patients with operable primary breast cancer-final results at 20-year follow-up

A recent Cochrane review of trials involving elderly women with operable primary breast cancer showed no significant difference in overall survival between surgery (±adjuvant tamoxifen) and primary endocrine therapy using tamoxifen. We report the final results of a randomised pilot trial comparing primary tamoxifen and wedge mastectomy as initial treatment in this population. One hundred and thirty-one women >70 years with early operable primary breast cancer (<5 cm), unselected for oestrogen receptor (ER), entered the trial in 1982-1987. Sixty-eight patients were allocated to tamoxifen only and 67 to wedge mastectomy only, as primary treatment. At 20 years of follow-up, the median time to local failure was significantly shorter in the tamoxifen arm though approximately one-fifth of patients in this group did not develop local failure requiring mastectomy. There was no difference in regional recurrence, distant metastases or overall survival between the mastectomy and tamoxifen arms. In this small study, primary endocrine therapy achieved local control in 30% of those surviving at 5 years and 20% at 10 years, unselected for ER. The primary therapy used did not significantly affect regional recurrence, incidence of distant metastases or overall survival. Primary endocrine therapy should certainly be considered in those patients with ER positive tumours and who are unfit (based on life expectancy) for or refuse surgery.

A vision to optimise the management of primary breast cancer in older women

Majority of breast cancer are diagnosed at >65 years. Efforts to develop clinical service and research are spent mainly on younger patients. Little is known about the biology and long-term clinical outcome of breast cancer in the elderly. However there is data suggesting that there are differences. Knowledge related to breast cancer in the elderly is urgently needed and we need to optimise their management - not 'over' or 'under' treating them, taking into account of both physical and psychosocial dimensions. The Nottingham Breast Services established a dedicated elderly primary breast cancer service from its inception over 30 year ago, which has recently developed into a combined surgical/oncology facility. A joint effort and team approach are required in both developing clinical service and research, in order to optimise management. There is an immense need to develop a dedicated elderly breast cancer service and to support ongoing research.

How age affects the biology of breast cancer

Breast cancer incidence increases with age, but there are important age-related differences with respect to the frequency of different tumour subtypes with respect to hormone receptor status and pathological grade. In general, younger patients show a higher frequency of oestrogen receptor-negative, higher-grade tumours, whereas in older patients there is a higher frequency of oestrogen receptor-positive, low-grade tumours. This accounts for the fact that, in general, elderly patients are thought to have a less aggressive form of the disease. However, this does not mean that all elderly patients with breast cancer necessarily have a good prognosis. An increased understanding of the mechanisms of tissue ageing and how these affect the molecular biological phenotype of breast cancers in cohorts of different ages will aid the oncologist's confidence in tailoring treatment more appropriately to the likely prognosis, and the development of novel, hopefully less toxic, treatments for specific subtypes of breast cancer in the elderly population.