Amphiastral mitotic spindle assembly in vertebrate cells lacking centrosomes

Commitment to cytokinetic furrowing requires the coordinate activity of microtubules and Plk1

At anaphase, spindle microtubules (MTs) position the cleavage furrow and trigger actomyosin assembly by localizing the small GTPase RhoA and the scaffolding protein anillin to a narrow band along the equatorial cortex [1-6]. Using vertebrate somatic cells we examined the temporal control of furrow assembly. Although its positioning commences at anaphase onset, furrow maturation is not complete until ∼10-11 min later. The maintenance of the RhoA/anillin scaffold initially requires continuous signaling from the spindle; loss of either MTs or polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) activity prevents proper RhoA/anillin localization to the equator, thereby disrupting furrowing. However, we find that at ∼6 min post-anaphase, the cortex becomes "committed to furrowing"; loss of either MTs or Plk1 after this stage does not prevent eventual furrowing, even though at this point the contractile apparatus has not fully matured. Also at this stage, the RhoA/anillin scaffold at the equator becomes permanent. Surprisingly, concurrent loss of both MTs and Plk1 activity following the "commitment to furrowing" stage results in persistent, asymmetric "half-furrows", with only one cortical hemisphere retaining RhoA/anillin, and undergoing ingression. This phenotype is reminiscent of asymmetric furrows caused by a physical block between spindle and cortex [7-9], or by acentric spindle positioning [10-12]. The formation of these persistent "half-furrows" suggests a potential feedback mechanism between the spindle and the cortex that maintains cortical competency along the presumptive equatorial region prior to the "commitment to furrowing" stage of cytokinesis, thereby ensuring the eventual ingression of a symmetric cleavage furrow.

Mechanisms underlying spindle assembly and robustness

The microtubule-based spindle orchestrates chromosome segregation during cell division. Following more than a century of study, many components and pathways contributing to spindle assembly have been described, but how the spindle robustly assembles remains incompletely understood. This process involves the self-organization of a large number of molecular parts - up to hundreds of thousands in vertebrate cells - whose local interactions give rise to a cellular-scale structure with emergent architecture, mechanics and function. In this Review, we discuss key concepts in our understanding of spindle assembly, focusing on recent advances and the new approaches that enabled them. We describe the pathways that generate the microtubule framework of the spindle by driving microtubule nucleation in a spatially controlled fashion and present recent insights regarding the organization of individual microtubules into structural modules. Finally, we discuss the emergent properties of the spindle that enable robust chromosome segregation.

Beyond the centrosome: The mystery of microtubule organising centres across mammalian preimplantation embryos

Mammalian preimplantation embryogenesis depends on the spatio-temporal dynamics of the microtubule cytoskeleton to enable exceptionally fast changes in cell number, function, architecture, and fate. Microtubule organising centres (MTOCs), which coordinate the remodelling of microtubules, are therefore of fundamental significance during the first days of a new life. Despite its indispensable role during early mammalian embryogenesis, the origin of microtubule growth remains poorly understood. In this review, we summarise the most recent discoveries on microtubule organisation and function during early human embryogenesis and compare these to innovative studies conducted in alternative mammalian models. We emphasise the differences and analogies of centriole inheritance and their role during the first cleavage. Furthermore, we highlight the significance of non-centrosomal MTOCs for embryo viability and discuss the potential of novel in vitro models and light-inducible approaches towards unravelling microtubule formation in research and assisted reproductive technologies.

Using Microinjection of Mammalian Cultured Cells to Study Cell Division

The introduction of macromolecules directly into individual cells by microinjection is an important technique for manipulating mitotic cells. mRNA, purified proteins, or concentrated antibodies can all be injected directly into a single cell, and their effects monitored by live-cell imaging. The equipment necessary is relatively simple, and the technique can be easily mastered. Here we describe our microinjection setup, how to microinject cultured mammalian cells in mitosis, and how to analyze those cells by same-cell live and fixed imaging.

NuMA assemblies organize microtubule asters to establish spindle bipolarity in acentrosomal human cells

In most animal cells, mitotic spindle formation is mediated by coordination of centrosomal and acentrosomal pathways. At the onset of mitosis, centrosomes promote spindle bipolarization. However, the mechanism through which the acentrosomal pathways facilitate the establishment of spindle bipolarity in early mitosis is not completely understood. In this study, we show the critical roles of nuclear mitotic apparatus protein (NuMA) in the generation of spindle bipolarity in acentrosomal human cells. In acentrosomal human cells, we found that small microtubule asters containing NuMA formed at the time of nuclear envelope breakdown. In addition, these asters were assembled by dynein and the clustering activity of NuMA. Subsequently, NuMA organized the radial array of microtubules, which incorporates Eg5, and thus facilitated spindle bipolarization. Importantly, in cells with centrosomes, we also found that NuMA promoted the initial step of spindle bipolarization in early mitosis. Overall, these data suggest that canonical centrosomal and NuMA-mediated acentrosomal pathways redundantly promote spindle bipolarity in human cells.

Characterization of Novel Murine and Human PDAC Cell Models: Identifying the Role of Intestine Specific Homeobox Gene ISX in Hypoxia and Disease Progression

Therapy failure and metastasis-associated mortality are stumbling blocks in the management of PDAC in patients. Failure of therapy is associated to intense hypoxic conditions of tumors. To develop effective therapies, a complete understanding of hypoxia-associated changes in genetic landscape of tumors during disease progression is needed. Because artificially immortalized cell lines do not rightly represent the disease progression, studying genetics of tumors in spontaneous models is warranted. In the current study, we generated a spectrum of spontaneous human (UM-PDC1; UM-PDC2) and murine (HI-PanL, HI-PancI, HI-PanM) models representing localized, invasive, and metastatic PDAC from a patient and transgenic mice (K-ras^G12D/Pdx^cre/Ink4a/p16^-/). These spontaneous models grow vigorously under hypoxia and exhibit activated K-ras signaling, progressive loss of PTEN, and tumorigenicity in vivo. Whereas UM-PDC1 form localized tumors, the UM-PDC2 metastasize to lungs in mice. In an order of progression, these models exhibit genomic instability marked by gross chromosomal rearrangements, centrosome-number variations, Aurora-kinase/H2AX colocalization, loss of primary cilia, and α-tubulin acetylation. The RNA sequencing of hypoxic models followed by qRT-PCR validation and gene-set enrichment identified Intestine-Specific Homeobox factor (ISX)–driven molecular pathway as an indicator PDAC aggressivness. TCGA-PAAD clinical data analysis showed high ISX expression correlation to poor survival of PDAC patients, particularly women. The functional studies showed ISX as a regulator of i) invasiveness and migratory potential and ii) VEGF, MMP2, and NFκB activation in PDAC cells. We suggest that ISX is a potential druggable target and newly developed spontaneous cell models are valuable tools for studying mechanism and testing therapies for PDAC.

Correlative Live Imaging and Immunofluorescence for Analysis of Chromosome Segregation in Mouse Preimplantation Embryos

Chromothripsis is a phenomenon observed in cancer cells, wherein a single or few chromosome(s) exhibit vast genomic rearrangements. Recent studies elucidated a striking series of events in which defective segregation of chromosomes causes their incorporation into micronuclei, where they are subject to extensive DNA damage prior to re-joining the main mass of chromosomes in a subsequent cell cycle, which provide an appealing mechanism for the etiology of chromothripsis. Micronuclei are well known to be common in human preimplantation embryos. We recently showed that, unlike in cancer cells, in mouse preimplantation embryos the micronuclei are maintained during multiple cell generations and apparently fail to re-join the main set of chromosomes. This unexpected finding could safeguard the early embryonic genome from chromothripsis. Here, we describe an approach that combines live and immunofluorescence imaging methods that was pivotal in that study to reveal the lack of a functional kinetochore in chromosomes from mouse embryo micronuclei.

Aurora-PLK1 cascades as key signaling modules in the regulation of mitosis

Mitosis is controlled by reversible protein phosphorylation involving specific kinases and phosphatases. A handful of major mitotic protein kinases, such as the cyclin B-CDK1 complex, the Aurora kinases, and Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), cooperatively regulate distinct mitotic processes. Research has identified proteins and mechanisms that integrate these kinases into signaling cascades that guide essential mitotic events. These findings have important implications for our understanding of the mechanisms of mitotic regulation and may advance the development of novel antimitotic drugs. We review collected evidence that in vertebrates, the Aurora kinases serve as catalytic subunits of distinct complexes formed with the four scaffold proteins Bora, CEP192, INCENP, and TPX2, which we deem "core" Aurora cofactors. These complexes and the Aurora-PLK1 cascades organized by Bora, CEP192, and INCENP control crucial aspects of mitosis and all pathways of spindle assembly. We compare the mechanisms of Aurora activation in relation to the different spindle assembly pathways and draw a functional analogy between the CEP192 complex and the chromosomal passenger complex that may reflect the coevolution of centrosomes, kinetochores, and the actomyosin cleavage apparatus. We also analyze the roles and mechanisms of Aurora-PLK1 signaling in the cell and centrosome cycles and in the DNA damage response.

Microsurgery and microinjection techniques in mitosis research

The use of microtechnique for studying cell division is well established (Begg & Ellis, 1979; Wadsworth, 1999; Zhang & Nicklas, 1999). The advantage of microinjection in cell division research is the timed delivery of a macromolecules at a particular stage of mitosis (for example, pre- vs postanaphase), which can circumvent the spindle assembly checkpoint (Hinchcliffe et al., 2016). Micromanipulation can be used to remove whole organelles, such as the centrosome or nucleus and examine the effects on cell division (Hinchcliffe et al., 2001; Hornick et al., 2011). The focus of this chapter is on methods for microinjection and micromanipulation of cultured mammalian cells. We describe pulling and shaping microneedles, as well as the imaging chambers we use. We also provide information on cell culture conditions, and imaging techniques used for our long-term observation studies, which allow cells to be followed on the order of several days.

CPTP: A sphingolipid transfer protein that regulates autophagy and inflammasome activation

The macroautophagy/autophagy and inflammasome pathways are linked through their roles in innate immunity and chronic inflammatory disease. Ceramide-1-phosphate (C1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid that regulates pro-inflammatory eicosanoid production. Whether C1P also regulates autophagy and inflammasome assembly/activation is not known. Here we show that CPTP (a protein that traffics C1P from its site of phosphorylation in the trans-Golgi to target membranes) regulates both autophagy and inflammasome activation. In human epithelial cells, knockdown of CPTP (but not GLTP [glycolipid transfer protein]) or expression of C1P binding-site point mutants, stimulated an 8- to 10-fold increase in autophagosomes and altered endogenous LC3-II and SQSTM1/p62 protein expression levels. CPTP depletion-induced autophagy elevated early markers of autophagosome formation (Golgi-derived ATG9A-vesicles, WIPI1), required key phagophore assembly and elongation factors (ATG5, ATG7, ULK1), and suppressed MTOR phosphorylation and that of its downstream target, RPS6KB1/p70S6K. Wild-type CPTP overexpression exerted a protective effect against starvation-induced autophagy. In THP-1 macrophage-like surveillance cells, CPTP knockdown induced not only autophagy but also elevated CASP1/caspase-1 levels, and strongly increased IL1B/interleukin-1β and IL18 release via a NLRP3 (but not NLRC4) inflammasome-based mechanism, while only moderately increasing inflammatory (pyroptotic) cell death. Inflammasome assembly and activation stimulated by CPTP depletion were autophagy dependent. Elevation of intracellular C1P by exogenous C1P treatment (instead of CPTP inhibition) also induced autophagy and IL1B release. Our findings identify human CPTP as an endogenous regulator of early-stage autophagosome assembly and inflammasome-driven, pro-inflammatory cytokine generation and release.

Mitotic spindle assembly in animal cells: a fine balancing act

The mitotic spindle has a crucial role in ensuring the accurate segregation of chromosomes into the two daughter cells during cell division, which is paramount for maintaining genome integrity. It is a self-organized and dynamic macromolecular structure that is constructed from microtubules, microtubule-associated proteins and motor proteins. Thirty years of research have led to the identification of centrosome-, chromatin- and microtubule-mediated microtubule nucleation pathways that each contribute to mitotic spindle assembly. Far from being redundant pathways, data are now emerging regarding how they function together to ensure the timely completion of mitosis. We are also beginning to comprehend the multiple mechanisms by which cells regulate spindle scaling. Together, this research has increased our understanding of how cells coordinate hundreds of proteins to assemble the dynamic, precise and robust structure that is the mitotic spindle.

Centrosomes are multifunctional regulators of genome stability

The maintenance of genome stability is critical for proper cell function, and loss of this stability contributes to many human diseases and developmental disorders. Therefore, cells have evolved partially redundant mechanisms to monitor and protect the genome. One subcellular organelle implicated in the maintenance of genome stability is the centrosome, best known as the primary microtubule organizing center of most animal cells. Centrosomes serve many different roles throughout the cell cycle, and many of those roles, including mitotic spindle assembly, nucleation of the interphase microtubule array, DNA damage response, and efficient cell cycle progression, have been proposed to help maintain genome stability. As a result, the centrosome is itself a highly regulated entity. Here, we review evidence concerning the significance of the centrosome in promoting genome integrity. Recent advances permitting acute and persistent centrosome removal suggest we still have much to learn regarding the specific function and actual importance of centrosomes in different contexts, as well as how cells may compensate for centrosome dysfunction to maintain the integrity of the genome. Although many animal cells survive and proliferate in the absence of centrosomes, they do so aberrantly. Based on these and other studies, we conclude that centrosomes serve as critical, multifunctional organelles that promote genome stability.

Lack of centrioles and primary cilia in STIL(-/-) mouse embryos

Although most animal cells contain centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles, their precise contribution to cell division and embryonic development is unclear. Genetic ablation of STIL, an essential component of the centriole replication machinery in mammalian cells, causes embryonic lethality in mice around mid gestation associated with defective Hedgehog signaling. Here, we describe, by focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy, that STIL(-/-) mouse embryos do not contain centrioles or primary cilia, suggesting that these organelles are not essential for mammalian development until mid gestation. We further show that the lack of primary cilia explains the absence of Hedgehog signaling in STIL(-/-) cells. Exogenous re-expression of STIL or STIL microcephaly mutants compatible with human survival, induced non-templated, de novo generation of centrioles in STIL(-/-) cells. Thus, while the abscence of centrioles is compatible with mammalian gastrulation, lack of centrioles and primary cilia impairs Hedgehog signaling and further embryonic development.

Dissecting the function and assembly of acentriolar microtubule organizing centers in Drosophila cells in vivo

Acentriolar microtubule organizing centers (aMTOCs) are formed during meiosis and mitosis in several cell types, but their function and assembly mechanism is unclear. Importantly, aMTOCs can be overactive in cancer cells, enhancing multipolar spindle formation, merotelic kinetochore attachment and aneuploidy. Here we show that aMTOCs can form in acentriolar Drosophila somatic cells in vivo via an assembly pathway that depends on Asl, Cnn and, to a lesser extent, Spd-2--the same proteins that appear to drive mitotic centrosome assembly in flies. This finding enabled us to ablate aMTOC formation in acentriolar cells, and so perform a detailed genetic analysis of the contribution of aMTOCs to acentriolar mitotic spindle formation. Here we show that although aMTOCs can nucleate microtubules, they do not detectably increase the efficiency of acentriolar spindle assembly in somatic fly cells. We find that they are required, however, for robust microtubule array assembly in cells without centrioles that also lack microtubule nucleation from around the chromatin. Importantly, aMTOCs are also essential for dynein-dependent acentriolar spindle pole focusing and for robust cell proliferation in the absence of centrioles and HSET/Ncd (a kinesin essential for acentriolar spindle pole focusing in many systems). We propose an updated model for acentriolar spindle pole coalescence by the molecular motors Ncd/HSET and dynein in conjunction with aMTOCs.

One to only two: a short history of the centrosome and its duplication

This review discusses some of the history of the fundamental, but not fully solved problem of how the centrosome duplicates from one to only two as the cell prepares for mitosis. We start with some of the early descriptions of the centrosome and the remarkably prescient but then controversial inferences drawn concerning its function in the cell. For more than 100 years, one of the most difficult issues for the concept of the centrosome has been to integrate observations that centrosomes appear to be important for spindle assembly in animal cells yet are not evident in higher plant cells and some animal cells. This stirred debate over the existence of centrosomes and their importance. A parallel debate concerned the role of the centrioles in organizing centrosomes. The relatively recent elucidation of bipolar spindle assembly around chromatin allows a re-examination of the role of centrioles in controlling centrosome duplication in animal cells. The problem of how centrosomes precisely double in preparation for mitosis in animal cells has now moved to the mystery of how only one procentriole is assembled at each mother centriole.

Mutations in PLK4, encoding a master regulator of centriole biogenesis, cause microcephaly, growth failure and retinopathy

Centrioles are essential for ciliogenesis. However, mutations in centriole biogenesis genes have been reported in primary microcephaly and Seckel syndrome, disorders without the hallmark clinical features of ciliopathies. Here we identify mutations in the master regulator of centriole duplication, the PLK4 kinase, and its substrate TUBGCP6 in patients with microcephalic primordial dwarfism and additional congenital anomalies including retinopathy, extending the human phenotype spectrum associated with centriole dysfunction. Furthermore, we establish that different levels of impaired PLK4 activity result in growth and cilia phenoptyes, providing a mechanism by which microcephaly disorders can occur with or without ciliopathic features.

A novel strategy for targeted killing of tumor cells: Induction of multipolar acentrosomal mitotic spindles with a quinazolinone derivative mdivi-1

Traditional antimitotic drugs for cancer chemotherapy often have undesired toxicities to healthy tissues, limiting their clinical application. Developing novel agents that specifically target tumor cell mitosis is needed to minimize the toxicity and improve the efficacy of this class of anticancer drugs. We discovered that mdivi-1 (mitochondrial division inhibitor-1), which was originally reported as an inhibitor of mitochondrial fission protein Drp1, specifically disrupts M phase cell cycle progression only in human tumor cells, but not in non-transformed fibroblasts or epithelial cells. The antimitotic effect of mdivi-1 is Drp1 independent, as mdivi-1 induces M phase abnormalities in both Drp1 wild-type and Drp1 knockout SV40-immortalized/transformed MEF cells. We also identified that the tumor transformation process required for the antimitotic effect of mdivi-1 is downstream of SV40 large T and small t antigens, but not hTERT-mediated immortalization. Mdivi-1 induces multipolar mitotic spindles in tumor cells regardless of their centrosome numbers. Acentrosomal spindle poles, which do not contain the bona-fide centrosome components γ-tubulin and centrin-2, were found to contribute to the spindle multipolarity induced by mdivi-1. Gene expression profiling revealed that the genes involved in oocyte meiosis and assembly of acentrosomal microtubules are highly expressed in tumor cells. We further identified that tumor cells have enhanced activity in the nucleation and assembly of acentrosomal kinetochore-attaching microtubules. Mdivi-1 inhibited the integration of acentrosomal microtubule-organizing centers into centrosomal asters, resulting in the development of acentrosomal mitotic spindles preferentially in tumor cells. The formation of multipolar acentrosomal spindles leads to gross genome instability and Bax/Bak-dependent apoptosis. Taken together, our studies indicate that inducing multipolar spindles composing of acentrosomal poles in mitosis could achieve tumor-specific antimitotic effect, and mdivi-1 thus represents a novel class of compounds as acentrosomal spindle inducers (ASI).

65,000 shades of grey: use of digital image files in light microscopy

Computers dominate image capture and analysis in modern light microscopy. The output of an imaging experiment is a binary coded file, called an image file, which contains the spatial, temporal and intensity information present in the sample. Understanding what comprises an image file, and how these files are generated is necessary in order to optimize the use of the digital light microscope. In this chapter, we discuss image file formats, and the various components of these files, such as bit-depth, sampling rate, color theory, and compression, from the perspective of the non-computer scientist. We also discuss the problem of proprietary file formats, and how these often are incompatible with certain types of imaging software. We present several solutions to this issue. Finally, we present the use of digital movie formats, compression routines, and provide some real world examples for optimizing the generation of digital movies.

It's all about the pentiums: The use, manipulation, and storage of digital microscopy imaging data for the biological sciences

Digital microscopy has revolutionized quantitative imaging, with binary-encoded computer files serving to capture and store imaging data sets for analysis. With the ever-present use of computers to generate and store imaging data, it becomes increasingly important to understand how these files are created, and how they can be both used and mis-used. This is a particularly important task for the biologist who may have limited background in computer science. Here we discuss some of the basic aspects of digital data storage and use, including file types, storage media, and the choice between commercial and open-source software. Often, open-source software is written by a user or group of users, and then distributed to the scientific community at large. These can be important tools, but there are some hidden costs to this freeware that we will discuss. We will also compare open-source software to commercial imaging software, which is often written for use by non-computer scientists.

Loss of centrioles causes chromosomal instability in vertebrate somatic cells

Most animal cells contain a centrosome, which comprises a pair of centrioles surrounded by an ordered pericentriolar matrix (PCM). Although the role of this organelle in organizing the mitotic spindle poles is well established, its precise contribution to cell division and cell survival remains a subject of debate. By genetically ablating key components of centriole biogenesis in chicken DT40 B cells, we generated multiple cell lines that lack centrioles. PCM components accumulated in acentriolar microtubule (MT)-organizing centers but failed to adopt a higher-order structure, as shown by three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy. Cells without centrioles exhibited both a delay in bipolar spindle assembly and a high rate of chromosomal instability. Collectively, our results expose a vital role for centrosomes in establishing a mitotic spindle geometry that facilitates correct kinetochore-MT attachments. We propose that centrosomes are essential in organisms in which rapid segregation of a large number of chromosomes needs to be attained with fidelity.

Genes involved in centrosome-independent mitotic spindle assembly in Drosophila S2 cells

Animal mitotic spindle assembly relies on centrosome-dependent and centrosome-independent mechanisms, but their relative contributions remain unknown. Here, we investigated the molecular basis of the centrosome-independent spindle assembly pathway by performing a whole-genome RNAi screen in Drosophila S2 cells lacking functional centrosomes. This screen identified 197 genes involved in acentrosomal spindle assembly, eight of which had no previously described mitotic phenotypes and produced defective and/or short spindles. All 197 genes also produced RNAi phenotypes when centrosomes were present, indicating that none were entirely selective for the acentrosomal pathway. However, a subset of genes produced a selective defect in pole focusing when centrosomes were absent, suggesting that centrosomes compensate for this shape defect. Another subset of genes was specifically associated with the formation of multipolar spindles only when centrosomes were present. We further show that the chromosomal passenger complex orchestrates multiple centrosome-independent processes required for mitotic spindle assembly/maintenance. On the other hand, despite the formation of a chromosome-enriched RanGTP gradient, S2 cells depleted of RCC1, the guanine-nucleotide exchange factor for Ran on chromosomes, established functional bipolar spindles. Finally, we show that cells without functional centrosomes have a delay in chromosome congression and anaphase onset, which can be explained by the lack of polar ejection forces. Overall, these findings establish the constitutive nature of a centrosome-independent spindle assembly program and how this program is adapted to the presence/absence of centrosomes in animal somatic cells.

Self-assembly and sorting of acentrosomal microtubules by TACC3 facilitate kinetochore capture during the mitotic spindle assembly

Kinetochore capture by dynamic kinetochore microtubule fibers (K fibers) is essential for proper chromosome alignment and accurate distribution of the replicated genome during cell division. Although this capture process has been extensively studied, the mechanisms underlying the initiation of this process and the proper formation of the K fibers remain largely unknown. Here we show that transforming acidic coiled-coil-containing protein 3 (TACC3) is essential for kinetochore capture and proper K-fiber formation in HeLa cells. To observe the assembly of acentrosomal microtubules more clearly, the cells were released from higher concentrations of nocodazole into zero or lower concentrations. We find that small acentrosomal TACC3-microtubule aster formation near the kinetochores and binding of the asters with the kinetochores are the initial steps of the kinetochore capture by the acentrosomal microtubules, and that the sorting of kinetochore-captured acentrosomal microtubules with centrosomal microtubules leads to the capture of kinetochore by centrosomal microtubules from both spindle poles. We demonstrate that the sorting of the TACC3-associated microtubules with the centrosomal microtubules is a crucial process for spindle assembly and chromosome movement. These findings, which are also supported in the unperturbed mitosis without nocodazole, reveal a critical TACC3-dependent acentrosomal microtubule nucleation and sorting process to regulate kinetochore-microtubule connections and provide deep insight into the mechanisms of mitotic spindle assembly and chromosome alignment.

Non-vesicular trafficking by a ceramide-1-phosphate transfer protein regulates eicosanoids

Phosphorylated sphingolipids [ceramide-1-phosphate (C1P) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)] have emerged as key regulators of cell growth, survival, migration, and inflammation^1–5. C1P (Fig. 1a) produced by ceramide kinase is an activator of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A₂α (cPLA₂α), the rate-limiting releaser of arachidonic acid used for pro-inflammatory eicosanoid production^3,6–9, which contributes to disease pathogenesis in asthma/airway hyper-responsiveness, cancer, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis. To modulate eicosanoid action and avoid the damaging effects of chronic inflammation, cells require efficient targeting, trafficking, and presentation of C1P to specific cellular sites. Vesicular trafficking is likely¹⁰ but nonvesicular mechanisms for C1P sensing, transfer, and presentation remain unexplored^11,12. Moreover, the molecular basis for selective recognition and binding among signaling lipids with phosphate headgroups, namely C1P, phosphatidic acid (PA) or their lyso-derivatives, remains unclear. Herein, an ubiquitously-expressed lipid transfer protein (CPTP) is shown to specifically transfer C1P between membranes. Crystal structures establish C1P binding via a novel surface-localized, phosphate headgroup recognition center connected to an interior hydrophobic pocket that adaptively expands to ensheath differing-length lipid chains using a cleft-like gating mechanism. The two-layer, α-helically-dominated ‘sandwich’ topology identifies CPTP as the prototype for a new GLTP-fold¹³ subfamily. CPTP resides in the cell cytosol but associates with the trans-Golgi/TGN, nucleus, and plasma membrane. RNAi-induced CPTP depletion elevates C1P steady-state levels and alters Golgi cisternae stack morphology. The resulting C1P decrease in plasma membranes and increase in the Golgi complex stimulates cPLA₂α release of arachidonic acid, triggering pro-inflammatory eicosanoid generation.

Centrosome positioning in vertebrate development

The centrosome, a major organizer of microtubules, has important functions in regulating cell shape, polarity, cilia formation and intracellular transport as well as the position of cellular structures, including the mitotic spindle. By means of these activities, centrosomes have important roles during animal development by regulating polarized cell behaviors, such as cell migration or neurite outgrowth, as well as mitotic spindle orientation. In recent years, the pace of discovery regarding the structure and composition of centrosomes has continuously accelerated. At the same time, functional studies have revealed the importance of centrosomes in controlling both morphogenesis and cell fate decision during tissue and organ development. Here, we review examples of centrosome and centriole positioning with a particular emphasis on vertebrate developmental systems, and discuss the roles of centrosome positioning, the cues that determine positioning and the mechanisms by which centrosomes respond to these cues. The studies reviewed here suggest that centrosome functions extend to the development of tissues and organs in vertebrates.

Timing of anaphase-promoting complex activation in mouse oocytes is predicted by microtubule-kinetochore attachment but not by bivalent alignment or tension

Homologous chromosome segregation errors during meiosis I are common and generate aneuploid embryos. Here, we provide a reason for this susceptibility to mis-segregation by live cell imaging of mouse oocytes. Our results show that stable kinetochore-microtubule attachments form in mid-prometaphase, 3-4 hours before anaphase. This coincided with the loss of Mad2 from kinetochores and with the start of anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C)-mediated cyclin B1 destruction. Therefore, the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) ceased to inhibit the APC/C from mid-prometaphase. This timing did not coincide with bivalent congression in one-third of all oocytes examined. Non-aligned bivalents were weakly positive for Mad2, under less tension than congressed bivalents and, by live-cell imaging, appeared to be in the process of establishing correct bi-orientation. The time from when the APC/C became active until anaphase onset was affected by the rate of loss of CDK1 activity, rather than by these non-aligned bivalents, which occasionally persisted until anaphase, resulting in homolog non-disjunction. We conclude that, in oocytes, a few erroneous attachments of bivalent kinetochores to microtubules do not generate a sufficient SAC 'wait anaphase' signal to inhibit the APC/C.

The centrosome and bipolar spindle assembly: does one have anything to do with the other?

In vertebrate somatic cells the centrosome functions as the major microtubule-organizing center (MTOC), which splits and separates to form the poles of the mitotic spindle. However, the role of the centriole-containing centrosome in the formation of bipolar mitotic spindles continues to be controversial. Cells normally containing centrosomes are still able to build bipolar spindles after their centrioles have been removed or ablated. In naturally occurring cellular systems that lack centrioles - such as plant cells and many oocytes - bipolar spindles form in the complete absence of canonical centrosomes. These observations have led to the notion that centrosomes play no role during mitosis. However, recent work has re-examined spindle assembly in the absence of centrosomes, both in cells that naturally lack them, and those that have had them experimentally removed. The results of these studies suggest that an appreciation of microtubule network organization- both before and after nuclear envelope breakdown (NEB) - is the key to understanding the mechanisms that regulate spindle assembly and the generation of bipolarity.

Zwint-1 is a novel Aurora B substrate required for the assembly of a dynein-binding platform on kinetochores

Aurora B (AurB) is a mitotic kinase responsible for multiple aspects of mitotic progression, including assembly of the outer kinetochore. Cytoplasmic dynein is an abundant kinetochore protein whose recruitment to kinetochores requires phosphorylation. To assess whether AurB regulates recruitment of dynein to kinetochores, we inhibited AurB using ZM447439 or a kinase-dead AurB construct. Inhibition of AurB reduced accumulation of dynein at kinetochores substantially; however, this reflected a loss of dynein-associated proteins rather than a defect in dynein phosphorylation. We determined that AurB inhibition affected recruitment of the ROD, ZW10, zwilch (RZZ) complex to kinetochores but not zwint-1 or more-proximal kinetochore proteins. AurB phosphorylated zwint-1 but not ZW10 in vitro, and three novel phosphorylation sites were identified by tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Expression of a triple-Ala zwint-1 mutant blocked kinetochore assembly of RZZ-dependent proteins and induced defects in chromosome movement during prometaphase. Expression of a triple-Glu zwint-1 mutant rendered cells resistant to AurB inhibition during prometaphase. However, cells expressing the triple-Glu mutant failed to satisfy the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) at metaphase because poleward streaming of dynein/dynactin/RZZ was inhibited. These studies identify zwint-1 as a novel AurB substrate required for kinetochore assembly and for proper SAC silencing at metaphase.

Polo-like kinase1 is required for recruitment of dynein to kinetochores during mitosis

Kinetochore dynein has been implicated in microtubule capture, correcting inappropriate microtubule attachments, chromosome movement, and checkpoint silencing. It remains unclear how dynein coordinates this diverse set of functions. Phosphorylation is responsible for some dynein heterogeneity (Whyte, J., Bader, J. R., Tauhata, S. B., Raycroft, M., Hornick, J., Pfister, K. K., Lane, W. S., Chan, G. K., Hinchcliffe, E. H., Vaughan, P. S., and Vaughan, K. T. (2008) J. Cell Biol. 183, 819-834), and phosphorylated and dephosphorylated forms of dynein coexist at prometaphase kinetochores. In this study, we measured the impact of inhibiting polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) on both dynein populations. Phosphorylated dynein was ablated at kinetochores after inhibiting Plk1 with a small molecule inhibitor (5-Cyano-7-nitro-2-(benzothiazolo-N-oxide)-carboxamide) or chemical genetic approaches. The total complement of kinetochore dynein was also reduced but not eliminated, reflecting the presence of some dephosphorylated dynein after Plk1 inhibition. Although Plk1 inhibition had a profound effect on dynein, kinetochore populations of dynactin, spindly, and zw10 were not reduced. Plk1-independent dynein was reduced after p150(Glued) depletion, consistent with the binding of dephosphorylated dynein to dynactin. Plk1 phosphorylated dynein intermediate chains at Thr-89 in vitro and generated the phospho-Thr-89 phospho-epitope on recombinant dynein intermediate chains. Finally, inhibition of Plk1 induced defects in microtubule capture and persistent microtubule attachment, suggesting a role for phosphorylated dynein in these functions during prometaphase. These findings suggest that Plk1 is a dynein kinase required for recruitment of phosphorylated dynein to kinetochores.