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Oor EE, Salinas E, Stanford TR. Location- and feature-based selection histories make independent, qualitatively distinct contributions to urgent visuomotor performance. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.29.596532. [PMID: 38853897 PMCID: PMC11160778 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.29.596532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Attention mechanisms that guide visuomotor behaviors are classified into three broad types according to their reliance on stimulus salience, current goals, and selection histories (i.e., recent experience with events of many sorts). These forms of attentional control are clearly distinct and multifaceted, but what is largely unresolved is how they interact dynamically to determine impending visuomotor choices. To investigate this, we trained two macaque monkeys to perform an urgent version of an oddball search task in which a red target appears among three green distracters, or vice versa. By imposing urgency, performance can be tracked continuously as it transitions from uninformed guesses to informed choices, and this, in turn, permits assessment of attentional control as a function of time. We found that the probability of making a correct choice was strongly modulated by the histories of preceding target colors and target locations. Crucially, although both effects were gated by success (or reward), the two variables played dynamically distinct roles: whereas location history promoted an early motor bias, color history modulated the later perceptual evaluation. Furthermore, target color and location influenced performance independently of each other. The results show that, when combined, selection histories can give rise to enormous swings in visuomotor performance even in simple tasks with highly discriminable stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Oor
- Department of Psychology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Emilio Salinas
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
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Salinas E, Stanford TR. Conditional independence as a statistical assessment of evidence integration processes. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0297792. [PMID: 38722936 PMCID: PMC11081312 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Intuitively, combining multiple sources of evidence should lead to more accurate decisions than considering single sources of evidence individually. In practice, however, the proper computation may be difficult, or may require additional data that are inaccessible. Here, based on the concept of conditional independence, we consider expressions that can serve either as recipes for integrating evidence based on limited data, or as statistical benchmarks for characterizing evidence integration processes. Consider three events, A, B, and C. We find that, if A and B are conditionally independent with respect to C, then the probability that C occurs given that both A and B are known, P(C|A, B), can be easily calculated without the need to measure the full three-way dependency between A, B, and C. This simplified approach can be used in two general ways: to generate predictions by combining multiple (conditionally independent) sources of evidence, or to test whether separate sources of evidence are functionally independent of each other. These applications are demonstrated with four computer-simulated examples, which include detecting a disease based on repeated diagnostic testing, inferring biological age based on multiple biomarkers of aging, discriminating two spatial locations based on multiple cue stimuli (multisensory integration), and examining how behavioral performance in a visual search task depends on selection histories. Besides providing a sound prescription for predicting outcomes, this methodology may be useful for analyzing experimental data of many types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Terrence R. Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
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Salinas E, Stanford TR. Conditional independence as a statistical assessment of evidence integration processes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.03.539321. [PMID: 37646001 PMCID: PMC10461915 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.03.539321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Intuitively, combining multiple sources of evidence should lead to more accurate decisions than considering single sources of evidence individually. In practice, however, the proper computation may be difficult, or may require additional data that are inaccessible. Here, based on the concept of conditional independence, we consider expressions that can serve either as recipes for integrating evidence based on limited data, or as statistical benchmarks for characterizing evidence integration processes. Consider three events, A , B , and C . We find that, if A and B are conditionally independent with respect to C , then the probability that C occurs given that both A and B are known, P C | A , B , can be easily calculated without the need to measure the full three-way dependency between A , B , and C . This simplified approach can be used in two general ways: to generate predictions by combining multiple (conditionally independent) sources of evidence, or to test whether separate sources of evidence are functionally independent of each other. These applications are demonstrated with four computer-simulated examples, which include detecting a disease based on repeated diagnostic testing, inferring biological age based on multiple biomarkers of aging, discriminating two spatial locations based on multiple cue stimuli (multisensory integration), and examining how behavioral performance in a visual search task depends on selection histories. Besides providing a sound prescription for predicting outcomes, this methodology may be useful for analyzing experimental data of many types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
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Oor EE, Stanford TR, Salinas E. Stimulus salience conflicts and colludes with endogenous goals during urgent choices. iScience 2023; 26:106253. [PMID: 36922998 PMCID: PMC10009283 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Selecting where to look next depends on both the salience of objects and current goals (what we are looking for), but discerning their relative contributions over the time frame of typical visuomotor decisions (200-250 ms) has been difficult. Here we investigate this problem using an urgent choice task with which the two contributions can be dissociated and tracked moment by moment. Behavioral data from three monkeys corresponded with model-based predictions: when salience favored the target, perceptual performance evolved rapidly and steadily toward an asymptotic level; when salience favored the distracter, many rapid errors were produced and the rise in performance took more time-effects analogous to oculomotor and attentional capture. The results show that salience has a brief (∼50 ms) but inexorable impact that leads to exogenous, involuntary capture, and this can either help or hinder performance, depending on the alignment between salience and ongoing internal goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E. Oor
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Terrence R. Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
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Seideman JA, Stanford TR, Salinas E. A conflict between spatial selection and evidence accumulation in area LIP. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4463. [PMID: 35915096 PMCID: PMC9343639 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32209-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The lateral intraparietal area (LIP) contains spatially selective neurons that help guide eye movements and, according to numerous studies, do so by accumulating sensory evidence in favor of one choice (e.g., look left) or another (look right). To examine this functional link, we trained two monkeys on an urgent motion discrimination task, a task with which the evolution of both the recorded neuronal activity and the subject's choice can be tracked millisecond by millisecond. We found that while choice accuracy increased steeply with increasing sensory evidence, at the same time, the LIP selection signal became progressively weaker, as if it hindered performance. This effect was consistent with the transient deployment of spatial attention to disparate locations away from the relevant sensory cue. The results demonstrate that spatial selection in LIP is dissociable from, and may even conflict with, evidence accumulation during informed saccadic choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Seideman
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA
| | - Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA
| | - Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA.
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Salinas E, Stanford TR. Under time pressure, the exogenous modulation of saccade plans is ubiquitous, intricate, and lawful. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2021; 70:154-162. [PMID: 34818614 PMCID: PMC8688226 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The choice of where to look next is determined by both exogenous (bottom-up) and endogenous (top-down) factors, but details of their interaction and distinct contributions to target selection have remained elusive. Recent experiments with urgent choice tasks, in which stimuli are evaluated while motor plans are already advancing, have greatly clarified these contributions. Specifically, exogenous modulations associated with stimulus detection act rapidly and briefly (∼25 ms) to automatically halt and/or boost ongoing motor plans as per spatial congruence rules. These stereotypical modulations explain, in quantitative detail, characteristic features of many saccadic tasks (e.g. antisaccade, countermanding, saccadic-inhibition, gap, and double-step). Thus, the same low-level visuomotor interactions contribute to diverse oculomotor phenomena traditionally attributed to different neural mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA.
| | - Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA
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Stanford TR, Salinas E. Urgent Decision Making: Resolving Visuomotor Interactions at High Temporal Resolution. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2021; 7:323-348. [PMID: 34171199 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-100419-103842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Measuring when exactly perceptual decisions are made is crucial for defining how the activation of specific neurons contributes to behavior. However, in traditional, nonurgent visuomotor tasks, the uncertainty of this temporal measurement is very large. This is a problem not only for delimiting the capacity of perception, but also for correctly interpreting the functional roles ascribed to choice-related neuronal responses. In this article, we review psychophysical, neurophysiological, and modeling work based on urgent visuomotor tasks in which this temporal uncertainty can be effectively overcome. The cornerstone of this work is a novel behavioral metric that describes the evolution of the subject's perceptual judgment moment by moment, allowing us to resolve numerous perceptual events that unfold within a few tens of milliseconds. In this framework, the neural distinction between perceptual evaluation and motor selection processes becomes particularly clear, as the conclusion of one is not contingent on that of the other. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Vision Science, Volume 7 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, USA; ,
| | - Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, USA; ,
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Salinas E, Steinberg BR, Sussman LA, Fry SM, Hauser CK, Anderson DD, Stanford TR. Voluntary and involuntary contributions to perceptually guided saccadic choices resolved with millisecond precision. eLife 2019; 8:46359. [PMID: 31225794 PMCID: PMC6645714 DOI: 10.7554/elife.46359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the antisaccade task, which is considered a sensitive assay of cognitive function, a salient visual cue appears and the participant must look away from it. This requires sensory, motor-planning, and cognitive neural mechanisms, but what are their unique contributions to performance, and when exactly are they engaged? Here, by manipulating task urgency, we generate a psychophysical curve that tracks the evolution of the saccadic choice process with millisecond precision, and resolve the distinct contributions of reflexive (exogenous) and voluntary (endogenous) perceptual mechanisms to antisaccade performance over time. Both progress extremely rapidly, the former driving the eyes toward the cue early on (∼100 ms after cue onset) and the latter directing them away from the cue ∼40 ms later. The behavioral and modeling results provide a detailed, dynamical characterization of attentional and oculomotor capture that is not only qualitatively consistent across participants, but also indicative of their individual perceptual capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Benjamin R Steinberg
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Lauren A Sussman
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Sophia M Fry
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Christopher K Hauser
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Denise D Anderson
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, United States
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