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Wu Y, Gao M, Lv L, Yan Y, Gao L, Geng Z, Zhou S, Zhu W, Yu Y, Tian Y, Ji G, Hu P, Wu X, Wang K. Brain functional specialization and cooperation in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Behav 2024; 14:e3550. [PMID: 38841739 PMCID: PMC11154812 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.3550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebral specialization and interhemispheric cooperation are two vital features of the human brain. Their dysfunction may be associated with disease progression in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is featured as progressive cognitive degeneration and asymmetric neuropathology. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to examine and define two inherent properties of hemispheric function in patients with AD by utilizing resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). METHODS Sixty-four clinically diagnosed AD patients and 52 age- and sex-matched cognitively normal subjects were recruited and underwent MRI and clinical evaluation. We calculated and compared brain specialization (autonomy index, AI) and interhemispheric cooperation (connectivity between functionally homotopic voxels, CFH). RESULTS In comparison to healthy controls, patients with AD exhibited enhanced AI in the left middle occipital gyrus. This increase in specialization can be attributed to reduced functional connectivity in the contralateral region, such as the right temporal lobe. The CFH of the bilateral precuneus and prefrontal areas was significantly decreased in AD patients compared to controls. Imaging-cognitive correlation analysis indicated that the CFH of the right prefrontal cortex was marginally positively related to the Montreal Cognitive Assessment score in patients and the Auditory Verbal Learning Test score. Moreover, taking abnormal AI and CFH values as features, support vector machine-based classification achieved good accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve by leave-one-out cross-validation. CONCLUSION This study suggests that individuals with AD have abnormal cerebral specialization and interhemispheric cooperation. This provides new insights for further elucidation of the pathological mechanisms of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wu
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Department of Psychology and Sleep Medicinethe Second Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Manman Gao
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Lingling Lv
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Yibing Yan
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Liying Gao
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Zhi Geng
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Shanshan Zhou
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental HealthHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Wanqiu Zhu
- Department of Radiologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Yongqiang Yu
- Department of Radiologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Yanghua Tian
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental HealthHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Institute of Artificial IntelligenceHefei Comprehensive National Science CenterHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- The School of Mental Health and Psychological SciencesAnhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Gong‐Jun Ji
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental HealthHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- The School of Mental Health and Psychological SciencesAnhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Panpan Hu
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental HealthHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Xingqi Wu
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
| | - Kai Wang
- Department of Neurologythe First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric DisordersHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental HealthHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- Institute of Artificial IntelligenceHefei Comprehensive National Science CenterHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
- The School of Mental Health and Psychological SciencesAnhui Medical UniversityHefeiAnhui ProvinceChina
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Lapate RC, Heckner MK, Phan AT, Tambini A, D'Esposito M. Information-based TMS to mid-lateral prefrontal cortex disrupts action goals during emotional processing. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4294. [PMID: 38769359 PMCID: PMC11106324 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48015-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The ability to respond to emotional events in a context-sensitive and goal-oriented manner is essential for adaptive functioning. In models of behavioral and emotion regulation, the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) is postulated to maintain goal-relevant representations that promote cognitive control, an idea rarely tested with causal inference. Here, we altered mid-LPFC function in healthy individuals using a putatively inhibitory brain stimulation protocol (continuous theta burst; cTBS), followed by fMRI scanning. Participants performed the Affective Go/No-Go task, which requires goal-oriented action during affective processing. We targeted mid-LPFC (vs. a Control site) based on the individualized location of action-goal representations observed during the task. cTBS to mid-LPFC reduced action-goal representations in mid-LPFC and impaired goal-oriented action, particularly during processing of negative emotional cues. During negative-cue processing, cTBS to mid-LPFC reduced functional coupling between mid-LPFC and nodes of the default mode network, including frontopolar cortex-a region thought to modulate LPFC control signals according to internal states. Collectively, these results indicate that mid-LPFC goal-relevant representations play a causal role in governing context-sensitive cognitive control during emotional processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Lapate
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - M K Heckner
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - A T Phan
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - A Tambini
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - M D'Esposito
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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Paller KA. Recurring memory reactivation: The offline component of learning. Neuropsychologia 2024; 196:108840. [PMID: 38417546 PMCID: PMC10981210 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
One can be aware of the effort needed to memorize a new fact or to recall the name of a new acquaintance. Because of experiences like this, learning can seem to have only two components, encoding information and, after some delay, retrieving information. To the contrary, learning entails additional, intervening steps that sometimes are hidden from the learner. For firmly acquiring fact and event knowledge in particular, learners are generally not cognizant of the necessity of offline consolidation. The memories that persist to be available reliably at a later time, according to the present conceptualization, are the ones we repeatedly rehearse and integrate with other knowledge, whether we do this intentionally or unknowingly, awake or asleep. This article examines the notion that learning is not a function of waking brain activity alone. What happens in the brain while we sleep also impacts memory storage, and consequently is a critical component of learning. The idea that memories can change over time and become enduring has long been present in memory research and is foundational for the concept of memory consolidation. Nevertheless, the notion that memory consolidation happens during sleep faced much resistance before eventually being firmly established. Research is still needed to elucidate the operation and repercussions of repeated reactivation during sleep. Comprehensively understanding how offline memory reactivation contributes to learning is vital for both theoretical and practical considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken A Paller
- Northwestern University, Department of Psychology, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
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Jimenez CA, Meyer ML. The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex prioritizes social learning during rest. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2309232121. [PMID: 38466844 PMCID: PMC10962978 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2309232121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Sociality is a defining feature of the human experience: We rely on others to ensure survival and cooperate in complex social networks to thrive. Are there brain mechanisms that help ensure we quickly learn about our social world to optimally navigate it? We tested whether portions of the brain's default network engage "by default" to quickly prioritize social learning during the memory consolidation process. To test this possibility, participants underwent functional MRI (fMRI) while viewing scenes from the documentary film, Samsara. This film shows footage of real people and places from around the world. We normed the footage to select scenes that differed along the dimension of sociality, while matched on valence, arousal, interestingness, and familiarity. During fMRI, participants watched the "social" and "nonsocial" scenes, completed a rest scan, and a surprise recognition memory test. Participants showed superior social (vs. nonsocial) memory performance, and the social memory advantage was associated with neural pattern reinstatement during rest in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), a key node of the default network. Moreover, it was during early rest that DMPFC social pattern reinstatement was greatest and predicted subsequent social memory performance most strongly, consistent with the "prioritization" account. Results simultaneously update 1) theories of memory consolidation, which have not addressed how social information may be prioritized in the learning process, and 2) understanding of default network function, which remains to be fully characterized. More broadly, the results underscore the inherent human drive to understand our vastly social world.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Meghan L. Meyer
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
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Iyer S, Collier E, Broom TW, Finn ES, Meyer ML. Individuals who see the good in the bad engage distinctive default network coordination during post-encoding rest. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2306295121. [PMID: 38150498 PMCID: PMC10769837 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2306295121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Focusing on the upside of negative events often promotes resilience. Yet, the underlying mechanisms that allow some people to spontaneously see the good in the bad remain unclear. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion has long suggested that positive affect, including positivity in the face of negative events, is linked to idiosyncratic thought patterns (i.e., atypical cognitive responses). Yet, evidence in support of this view has been limited, in part, due to difficulty in measuring idiosyncratic cognitive processes as they unfold. To overcome this barrier, we applied Inter-Subject Representational Similarity Analysis to test whether and how idiosyncratic neural responding supports positive reactions to negative experience. We found that idiosyncratic functional connectivity patterns in the brain's default network while resting after a negative experience predicts more positive descriptions of the event. This effect persisted when controlling for connectivity 1) before and during the negative experience, 2) before, during, and after a neutral experience, and 3) between other relevant brain regions (i.e., the limbic system). The relationship between idiosyncratic default network responding and positive affect was largely driven by functional connectivity patterns between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the rest of the default network and occurred relatively quickly during rest. We identified post-encoding rest as a key moment and the default network as a key brain system in which idiosyncratic responses correspond with seeing the good in the bad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhant Iyer
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Eleanor Collier
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA92521
| | - Timothy W. Broom
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Emily S. Finn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH03755
| | - Meghan L. Meyer
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
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Tompary A, Xia A, Coslett BH, Thompson-Schill SL. Disruption of Anterior Temporal Lobe Reduces Distortions in Memory From Category Knowledge. J Cogn Neurosci 2023; 35:1899-1918. [PMID: 37713660 PMCID: PMC10860667 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
Memory retrieval does not provide a perfect recapitulation of past events, but instead an imperfect reconstruction of event-specific details and general knowledge. However, it remains unclear whether this reconstruction relies on mixtures of signals from different memory systems, including one supporting general knowledge. Here, we investigate whether the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) distorts new memories because of prior category knowledge. In this preregistered experiment (n = 36), participants encoded and retrieved image-location associations. Most images' locations were clustered according to their category, but some were in random locations. With this protocol, we previously demonstrated that randomly located images were retrieved closer to their category cluster relative to their encoded locations, suggesting an influence of category knowledge. We combined this procedure with TMS delivered to the left ATL before retrieval. We separately examined event-specific details (error) and category knowledge (bias) to identify distinct signals attributable to different memory systems. We found that TMS to ATL attenuated bias in location memory, but this effect was limited to exploratory analyses of atypical category members of animal categories. The magnitude of error was not impacted, suggesting that a memory's fidelity can be decoupled from its distortion by category knowledge. This raises the intriguing possibility that retrieval is jointly supported by separable memory systems.
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Geissmann L, Coynel D, Papassotiropoulos A, de Quervain DJF. Neurofunctional underpinnings of individual differences in visual episodic memory performance. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5694. [PMID: 37709747 PMCID: PMC10502056 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41380-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Episodic memory, the ability to consciously recollect information and its context, varies substantially among individuals. While prior fMRI studies have identified certain brain regions linked to successful memory encoding at a group level, their role in explaining individual memory differences remains largely unexplored. Here, we analyze fMRI data of 1,498 adults participating in a picture encoding task in a single MRI scanner. We find that individual differences in responsivity of the hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex, and posterior cingulate cortex account for individual variability in episodic memory performance. While these regions also emerge in our group-level analysis, other regions, predominantly within the lateral occipital cortex, are related to successful memory encoding but not to individual memory variation. Furthermore, our network-based approach reveals a link between the responsivity of nine functional connectivity networks and individual memory variability. Our work provides insights into the neurofunctional correlates of individual differences in visual episodic memory performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léonie Geissmann
- Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
- Research Cluster Molecular and Cognitive Neurosciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - David Coynel
- Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Research Cluster Molecular and Cognitive Neurosciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Papassotiropoulos
- Research Cluster Molecular and Cognitive Neurosciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Division of Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- University Psychiatric Clinics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dominique J F de Quervain
- Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
- Research Cluster Molecular and Cognitive Neurosciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
- University Psychiatric Clinics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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Kreitz S, Mennecke A, Konerth L, Rösch J, Nagel AM, Laun FB, Uder M, Dörfler A, Hess A. 3T vs. 7T fMRI: capturing early human memory consolidation after motor task utilizing the observed higher functional specificity of 7T. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1215400. [PMID: 37638321 PMCID: PMC10448826 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1215400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) visualizes brain structures at increasingly higher resolution and better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as field strength increases. Yet, mapping the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response to distinct neuronal processes continues to be challenging. Here, we investigated the characteristics of 7 T-fMRI compared to 3 T-fMRI in the human brain beyond the effect of increased SNR and verified the benefits of 7 T-fMRI in the detection of tiny, highly specific modulations of functional connectivity in the resting state following a motor task. Methods 18 healthy volunteers underwent two resting state and a stimulus driven measurement using a finger tapping motor task at 3 and 7 T, respectively. The SNR for each field strength was adjusted by targeted voxel size variation to minimize the effect of SNR on the field strength specific outcome. Spatial and temporal characteristics of resting state ICA, network graphs, and motor task related activated areas were compared. Finally, a graph theoretical approach was used to detect resting state modulation subsequent to a simple motor task. Results Spatial extensions of resting state ICA and motor task related activated areas were consistent between field strengths, but temporal characteristics varied, indicating that 7 T achieved a higher functional specificity of the BOLD response than 3 T-fMRI. Following the motor task, only 7 T-fMRI enabled the detection of highly specific connectivity modulations representing an "offline replay" of previous motor activation. Modulated connections of the motor cortex were directly linked to brain regions associated with memory consolidation. Conclusion These findings reveal how memory processing is initiated even after simple motor tasks, and that it begins earlier than previously shown. Thus, the superior capability of 7 T-fMRI to detect subtle functional dynamics promises to improve diagnostics and therapeutic assessment of neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Kreitz
- Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Angelika Mennecke
- Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Laura Konerth
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Julie Rösch
- Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Armin M. Nagel
- Institute of Radiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Frederik B. Laun
- Institute of Radiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Michael Uder
- Institute of Radiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Arnd Dörfler
- Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andreas Hess
- Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
- FAU NeW—Research Center for New Bioactive Compounds, Erlangen, Germany
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Han X, Zhu Z, Luan J, Lv P, Xin X, Zhang X, Shmuel A, Yao Z, Ma G, Zhang B. Effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and their underlying neural mechanisms evaluated with magnetic resonance imaging-based brain connectivity network analyses. Eur J Radiol Open 2023; 10:100495. [PMID: 37396489 PMCID: PMC10311181 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejro.2023.100495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a noninvasive brain modulation and rehabilitation technique used in patients with neuropsychiatric diseases. rTMS can structurally remodel or functionally induce activities of specific cortical regions and has developed to an important therapeutic method in such patients. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides brain data that can be used as an explanation tool for the neural mechanisms underlying rTMS effects; brain alterations related to different functions or structures may be reflected in changes in the interaction and influence of brain connections within intrinsic specific networks. In this review, we discuss the technical details of rTMS and the biological interpretation of brain networks identified with MRI analyses, comprehensively summarize the neurobiological effects in rTMS-modulated individuals, and elaborate on changes in the brain network in patients with various neuropsychiatric diseases receiving rehabilitation treatment with rTMS. We conclude that brain connectivity network analysis based on MRI can reflect alterations in functional and structural connectivity networks comprising adjacent and separated brain regions related to stimulation sites, thus reflecting the occurrence of intrinsic functional integration and neuroplasticity. Therefore, MRI is a valuable tool for understanding the neural mechanisms of rTMS and practically tailoring treatment plans for patients with neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Han
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, China
- Nanjing University Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University, China
| | - Zhengyang Zhu
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, China
- Nanjing University Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University, China
| | - Jixin Luan
- China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, China
| | - Pin Lv
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, China
- Nanjing University Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University, China
| | - Xiaoyan Xin
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, China
- Nanjing University Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, China
- Nanjing University Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University, China
| | - Amir Shmuel
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Canada
| | - Zeshan Yao
- Biomedical Engineering Institute, Jingjinji National Center of Technology Innovation, China
| | - Guolin Ma
- Department of Radiology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, China
| | - Bing Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China
- Medical Imaging Center, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, China
- Nanjing University Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Nanjing University, China
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Guo D, Chen G, Yang J. Effects of schema on the relationship between post-encoding brain connectivity and subsequent durable memory. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8736. [PMID: 37253795 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34822-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Schemas can facilitate memory consolidation. Studies have suggested that interactions between the hippocampus and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are important for schema-related memory consolidation. However, in humans, how schema accelerates the consolidation of new information and relates to durable memory remains unclear. To address these knowledge gaps, we used a human analogue of the rodent spatial schema task and resting-state fMRI to investigate how post-encoding brain networks can predict long-term memory performance in different schema conditions. After participants were trained to obtain schema-consistent or schema-inconsistent object-location associations, they learned new object-location associations. The new associations were tested after the post-encoding rest in the scanner and 24 h later outside the scanner. The Bayesian multilevel modelling was applied to analyse the post-encoding brain networks. The results showed that during the post-encoding, stronger vmPFC- anterior hippocampal connectivity was associated with durable memory in the schema-consistent condition, whereas stronger object-selective lateral occipital cortex (LOC)-ventromedial prefrontal connectivity and weaker connectivity inside the default mode network were associated with durable memory in the schema inconsistent condition. In addition, stronger LOC-anterior hippocampal connectivity was associated with memory in both schema conditions. These results shed light on how schemas reconfigure early brain networks, especially the prefrontal-hippocampal and stimuli-relevant cortical networks and influence long-term memory performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingrong Guo
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behaviour and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, People's Republic of China
| | - Gang Chen
- Scientific and Statistical Computing Core, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jiongjiong Yang
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behaviour and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, People's Republic of China.
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Tambini A, Miller J, Ehlert L, Kiyonaga A, D’Esposito M. Structured memory representations develop at multiple time scales in hippocampal-cortical networks. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.06.535935. [PMID: 37066263 PMCID: PMC10104124 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.06.535935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
Influential views of systems memory consolidation posit that the hippocampus rapidly forms representations of specific events, while neocortical networks extract regularities across events, forming the basis of schemas and semantic knowledge. Neocortical extraction of schematic memory representations is thought to occur on a protracted timescale of months, especially for information that is unrelated to prior knowledge. However, this theorized evolution of memory representations across extended timescales, and differences in the temporal dynamics of consolidation across brain regions, lack reliable empirical support. To examine the temporal dynamics of memory representations, we repeatedly exposed human participants to structured information via sequences of fractals, while undergoing longitudinal fMRI for three months. Sequence-specific activation patterns emerged in the hippocampus during the first 1-2 weeks of learning, followed one week later by high-level visual cortex, and subsequently the medial prefrontal and parietal cortices. Schematic, sequence-general representations emerged in the prefrontal cortex after 3 weeks of learning, followed by the medial temporal lobe and anterior temporal cortex. Moreover, hippocampal and most neocortical representations showed sustained rather than time-limited dynamics, suggesting that representations tend to persist across learning. These results show that specific hippocampal representations emerge early, followed by both specific and schematic representations at a gradient of timescales across hippocampal-cortical networks as learning unfolds. Thus, memory representations do not exist only in specific brain regions at a given point in time, but are simultaneously present at multiple levels of abstraction across hippocampal-cortical networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arielle Tambini
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Jacob Miller
- Wu Tsai Institute, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | - Luke Ehlert
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California. Irvine, CA
| | - Anastasia Kiyonaga
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, CA
| | - Mark D’Esposito
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA
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12
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A short-term memory trace persists for days in the mouse hippocampus. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1168. [PMID: 36329137 PMCID: PMC9633825 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04167-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Active recall of short-term memory (STM) is known to last for a few hours, but whether STM has long-term functions is unknown. Here we show that STM can be optogenetically retrieved at a time point during which natural recall is not possible, uncovering the long-term existence of an STM engram. Moreover, re-training within 3 days led to natural long-term recall, indicating facilitated consolidation. Inhibiting offline CA1 activity during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activity, or protein synthesis after first exposure to the STM-forming event impaired the future re-exposure-facilitated consolidation, which highlights a role of protein synthesis, NMDAR and NREM sleep in the long-term storage of an STM trace. These results provide evidence that STM is not completely lost within hours and demonstrates a possible two-step STM consolidation, first long-term storage as a behaviorally inactive engram, then transformation into an active state by recurrence within 3 days. Short-term memory (STM) forms a protein synthesis-, NMDAR- and NREM sleep-dependent engram which lasts at least 3 days in the mouse hippocampus following a novel object location task, suggesting that STM is not completely lost within hours.
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13
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Iggena D, Maier PM, Häußler SM, Menk M, Olze H, Larkum ME, Finke C, Ploner CJ. Post-encoding modulation of spatial memory consolidation by propofol. Cortex 2022; 156:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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14
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Ford JH, Kim SY, Kark SM, Daley RT, Payne JD, Kensinger EA. Distinct stress-related changes in intrinsic amygdala connectivity predict subsequent positive and negative memory performance. Eur J Neurosci 2022; 56:4744-4765. [PMID: 35841177 PMCID: PMC9710194 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Experiencing stress before an event can influence how that event is later remembered. In the current study, we examine how individual differences in one's physiological response to a stressor are related to changes to underlying brain states and memory performance. Specifically, we examined how changes in intrinsic amygdala connectivity relate to positive and negative memory performance as a function of stress response, defined as a change in cortisol. Twenty-five participants underwent a social stressor before an incidental emotional memory encoding task. Cortisol samples were obtained before and after the stressor to measure individual differences in stress response. Three resting state scans (pre-stressor, post-stressor/pre-encoding and post-encoding) were conducted to evaluate pre- to post-stressor and pre- to post-encoding changes to intrinsic amygdala connectivity. Analyses examined relations between greater cortisol changes and connectivity changes. Greater cortisol increases were associated with a greater decrease in prefrontal-amygdala connectivity following the stressor and a reversal in the relation between prefrontal-amygdala connectivity and negative vs. positive memory performance. Greater cortisol increases were also associated with a greater increase in amygdala connectivity with a number of posterior sensory regions following encoding. Consistent with prior findings in non-stressed individuals, pre- to post-encoding increases in amygdala-posterior connectivity were associated with greater negative relative to positive memory performance, although this was specific to lateral rather than medial posterior regions and to participants with the greatest cortisol changes. These findings suggest that stress response is associated with changes in intrinsic connectivity that have downstream effects on the valence of remembered emotional content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn H Ford
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sara Y Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Sarah M Kark
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Ryan T Daley
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jessica D Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Kensinger
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, USA
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15
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Dastgheib M, Kulanayagam A, Dringenberg HC. Is the role of sleep in memory consolidation overrated? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 140:104799. [PMID: 35905801 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Substantial empirical evidence suggests that sleep benefits the consolidation and reorganization of learned information. Consequently, the concept of "sleep-dependent memory consolidation" is now widely accepted by the scientific community, in addition to influencing public perceptions regarding the functions of sleep. There are, however, numerous studies that have presented findings inconsistent with the sleep-memory hypothesis. Here, we challenge the notion of "sleep-dependency" by summarizing evidence for effective memory consolidation independent of sleep. Plasticity mechanisms thought to mediate or facilitate consolidation during sleep (e.g., neuronal replay, reactivation, slow oscillations, neurochemical milieu) also operate during non-sleep states, particularly quiet wakefulness, thus allowing for the stabilization of new memories. We propose that it is not sleep per se, but the engagement of plasticity mechanisms, active during both sleep and (at least some) waking states, that constitutes the critical factor determining memory formation. Thus, rather than playing a "critical" role, sleep falls along a continuum of behavioral states that vary in their effectiveness to support memory consolidation at the neural and behavioral level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hans C Dringenberg
- Department of Psychology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
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16
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Hermiller MS, Dave S, Wert SL, VanHaerents S, Riley M, Weintraub S, Mesulam MM, Voss JL. Evidence from theta-burst stimulation that age-related de-differentiation of the hippocampal network is functional for episodic memory. Neurobiol Aging 2022; 109:145-157. [PMID: 34740076 PMCID: PMC8671378 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Episodic memory is supported by hippocampal interactions with a distributed network. Aging is associated with memory decline and network de-differentiation. However, the role of de-differentiation in memory decline has not been directly tested. We reasoned that hippocampal network-targeted stimulation could test these theories, as age-related changes in the network response to stimulation would indicate network reorganization, and corresponding changes in memory would suggest that this reorganization is functional. We compared effects of stimulation on fMRI connectivity and memory in younger versus older adults. Theta-burst network-targeted stimulation of left lateral parietal cortex selectively increased hippocampal network connectivity and modulated memory in younger adults. In contrast, stimulation in older adults increased connectivity throughout the brain, without network selectivity, and did not influence memory. These findings provide evidence that network responses to stimulation are de-differentiated in aging and suggest that age-related de-differentiation is relevant for memory. This manuscript is part of the Special Issue entitled "Cognitive Neuroscience of Healthy and Pathological Aging" edited by Drs. M. N. Rajah, S. Belleville, and R. Cabeza. This article is part of the Virtual Special Issue titled COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF HEALTHY AND PATHOLOGICAL AGING. The full issue can be found on ScienceDirect at https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/neurobiology-of-aging/special-issue/105379XPWJP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly S. Hermiller
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY,Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY,Corresponding author: Molly S. Hermiller, 615 West 131st Street, Studebaker, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10027,
| | - Shruti Dave
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Stephanie L. Wert
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Stephen VanHaerents
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Michaela Riley
- Mesulam Center for Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer’s Disease, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Sandra Weintraub
- Mesulam Center for Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer’s Disease, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - M.-Marsel Mesulam
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL,Mesulam Center for Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer’s Disease, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
| | - Joel L. Voss
- Department of Medical Social Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL,Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL
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17
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Gann MA, King BR, Dolfen N, Veldman MP, Davare M, Swinnen SP, Mantini D, Robertson EM, Albouy G. Prefrontal stimulation prior to motor sequence learning alters multivoxel patterns in the striatum and the hippocampus. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20572. [PMID: 34663890 PMCID: PMC8523553 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99926-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor sequence learning (MSL) is supported by dynamical interactions between hippocampal and striatal networks that are thought to be orchestrated by the prefrontal cortex. In the present study, we tested whether individually-tailored theta-burst stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) prior to MSL can modulate multivoxel response patterns in the stimulated cortical area, the hippocampus and the striatum. Response patterns were assessed with multivoxel correlation structure analyses of functional magnetic resonance imaging data acquired during task practice and during resting-state scans before and after learning/stimulation. Results revealed that, across stimulation conditions, MSL induced greater modulation of task-related DLPFC multivoxel patterns than random practice. A similar learning-related modulatory effect was observed on sensorimotor putamen patterns under inhibitory stimulation. Furthermore, MSL as well as inhibitory stimulation affected (posterior) hippocampal multivoxel patterns at post-intervention rest. Exploratory analyses showed that MSL-related brain patterns in the posterior hippocampus persisted into post-learning rest preferentially after inhibitory stimulation. These results collectively show that prefrontal stimulation can alter multivoxel brain patterns in deep brain regions that are critical for the MSL process. They also suggest that stimulation influenced early offline consolidation processes as evidenced by a stimulation-induced modulation of the reinstatement of task pattern into post-learning wakeful rest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareike A Gann
- Department of Movement Sciences, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- LBI - KU Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bradley R King
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, College of Health, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Nina Dolfen
- Department of Movement Sciences, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- LBI - KU Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Menno P Veldman
- Department of Movement Sciences, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- LBI - KU Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marco Davare
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PN, UK
| | - Stephan P Swinnen
- Department of Movement Sciences, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- LBI - KU Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dante Mantini
- Department of Movement Sciences, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
- Brain Imaging and Neural Dynamics Research Group, IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, 30126, Venice, Italy
| | - Edwin M Robertson
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QB, UK
| | - Geneviève Albouy
- Department of Movement Sciences, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium.
- LBI - KU Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium.
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, College of Health, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.
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18
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Lu HY, Lorenc ES, Zhu H, Kilmarx J, Sulzer J, Xie C, Tobler PN, Watrous AJ, Orsborn AL, Lewis-Peacock J, Santacruz SR. Multi-scale neural decoding and analysis. J Neural Eng 2021; 18. [PMID: 34284369 PMCID: PMC8840800 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ac160f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Objective. Complex spatiotemporal neural activity encodes rich information related to behavior and cognition. Conventional research has focused on neural activity acquired using one of many different measurement modalities, each of which provides useful but incomplete assessment of the neural code. Multi-modal techniques can overcome tradeoffs in the spatial and temporal resolution of a single modality to reveal deeper and more comprehensive understanding of system-level neural mechanisms. Uncovering multi-scale dynamics is essential for a mechanistic understanding of brain function and for harnessing neuroscientific insights to develop more effective clinical treatment. Approach. We discuss conventional methodologies used for characterizing neural activity at different scales and review contemporary examples of how these approaches have been combined. Then we present our case for integrating activity across multiple scales to benefit from the combined strengths of each approach and elucidate a more holistic understanding of neural processes. Main results. We examine various combinations of neural activity at different scales and analytical techniques that can be used to integrate or illuminate information across scales, as well the technologies that enable such exciting studies. We conclude with challenges facing future multi-scale studies, and a discussion of the power and potential of these approaches. Significance. This roadmap will lead the readers toward a broad range of multi-scale neural decoding techniques and their benefits over single-modality analyses. This Review article highlights the importance of multi-scale analyses for systematically interrogating complex spatiotemporal mechanisms underlying cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung-Yun Lu
- The University of Texas at Austin, Biomedical Engineering, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth S Lorenc
- The University of Texas at Austin, Psychology, Austin, TX, United States of America.,The University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Hanlin Zhu
- Rice University, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Justin Kilmarx
- The University of Texas at Austin, Mechanical Engineering, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - James Sulzer
- The University of Texas at Austin, Mechanical Engineering, Austin, TX, United States of America.,The University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Chong Xie
- Rice University, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Philippe N Tobler
- University of Zurich, Neuroeconomics and Social Neuroscience, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrew J Watrous
- The University of Texas at Austin, Neurology, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Amy L Orsborn
- University of Washington, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,University of Washington, Bioengineering, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Jarrod Lewis-Peacock
- The University of Texas at Austin, Psychology, Austin, TX, United States of America.,The University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, United States of America
| | - Samantha R Santacruz
- The University of Texas at Austin, Biomedical Engineering, Austin, TX, United States of America.,The University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Neuroscience, Austin, TX, United States of America
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