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Rodriguez-Diaz C, Seyboldt C, Rupnik M. Non-human Clostridioides difficile Reservoirs and Sources: Animals, Food, Environment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1435:329-350. [PMID: 38175482 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-42108-2_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is ubiquitous and is found in humans, animals and in variety of environments. The substantial overlap of ribotypes between all three main reservoirs suggests the extensive transmissions. Here we give the overview of European studies investigating farm, companion and wild animals, food and environments including water, soil, sediment, wastewater treatment plants, biogas plants, air, and households. Studies in Europe are more numerous especially in last couple of years, but are still fragmented in terms of countries, animal species, or type of environment covered. Soil seem to be the habitat of divergent unusual lineages of C. difficile. But the most important aspect of animals and environment is their role in C. difficile transmissions and their potential as a source for human infection is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Rodriguez-Diaz
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma de Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, UGC de Aparato Digestivo, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Málaga, Spain
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health (FARAH), Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Christian Seyboldt
- Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Jena, Germany
| | - Maja Rupnik
- National Laboratory for Health, Environment and Food, NLZOH, Maribor, Slovenia
- University of Maribor, Faculty of Medicine, Maribor, Slovenia
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Uchida-Fujii E, Niwa H, Senoh M, Kato H, Kinoshita Y, Mita H, Ueno T. Clostridioides difficile infection in thoroughbred horses in Japan from 2010 to 2021. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13099. [PMID: 37567893 PMCID: PMC10421859 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40157-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
We encountered 34 Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI) cases among Thoroughbred horses in Japan from 2010 to 2021. Among them, 79.4% (27/34) either died or were euthanised. The risk factors associated with CDI and mortality among Japanese Thoroughbred horses remain unclear. We used genetic methods to examine C. difficile strains and their relationships with prognosis. Twenty-two (64.7%) cases were hospitalised at the onset of colitis. Outcomes were balanced for hospitalisation rates at the onset of colitis. The mortality rates of cases treated with metronidazole (65.0%) were significantly lower than untreated cases (100%). The predominant genotype of C. difficile isolate was polymerase chain reaction ribotype (RT) 078, isolated from 12 cases (35.3%), followed by RT014 (six cases, 17.6%). Binary toxin (C. difficile transferase [CDT])-positive strains, including all RT078 strains, were isolated from 16 horses. Mortality rates in RT078 strain (75.0%) or CDT-positive strain (83.3%) cases were comparable to that in cases of other types. Sufficient infection control is needed to prevent CDI in Thoroughbred horses. A timely and prompt CDI diagnosis leading to metronidazole treatment would improve CDI outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Uchida-Fujii
- Microbiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shiba 1400-4, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, 329-0412, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Niwa
- Microbiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shiba 1400-4, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, 329-0412, Japan.
| | - Mitsutoshi Senoh
- Department of Bacteriology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen 4-7-1, Musashimurayama, Tokyo, 208-0011, Japan
| | - Haru Kato
- Antimicrobial Resistance Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Aoba-Cho 4-2-1, Higashimurayama, Tokyo, 189-0002, Japan
| | - Yuta Kinoshita
- Microbiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shiba 1400-4, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, 329-0412, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Mita
- Clinical Veterinary Medicine Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shiba 1400-4, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, 329-0412, Japan
| | - Takanori Ueno
- Microbiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shiba 1400-4, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, 329-0412, Japan
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Kuttappan DA, Mooyottu S, Sponseller BA. An Overview of Equine Enteric Clostridial Diseases. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2023; 39:15-23. [PMID: 36737289 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The understanding of the pathogenesis of equine enteric clostridial organisms is an active, evolving field. Advances will improve our knowledge both from the animal welfare and human health perspectives. The zoonotic nature of this group of diseases makes them relevant in the age of One health, as a significant amount of close human-equine interactions occurs for business and pleasure. Economic and welfare reasons prompt a better understanding of enteric clostridial pathogenesis, treatment, and control of the infection in horses and ongoing efforts are needed to advance clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shankumar Mooyottu
- Department of Pathobiology, Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 1130 Wire Road, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Brett A Sponseller
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State University, 2134 College of Veterinary Medicine, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA; Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50014, USA.
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Serum IgM antibody response to Clostridioides difficile polysaccharide PS-II vaccination in pony foals. Anaerobe 2022; 77:102635. [PMID: 36064161 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) is associated with colitis in foals and mature horses. C. difficile exposes specific phosphorylated polysaccharides (PSs), named PS-I, PS-II and PS-III. These cell-surface PSs are potential vaccine targets, especially the hexasaccharide phosphate PS-II, that has been found in all C. difficile ribotypes examined. Since we previously identified anti-PS-II circulating antibodies in horses, we postulated that vaccinating foals with PS-II may prevent colonization by C. difficile. In this study, we aim to evaluate the IgM antibody responses in foals to PS-II. METHODS To evaluate the reactogenicity and immunogenicity of C. difficile PS-II in foals, three-to four-month-old foals were vaccinated intramuscularly three times at intervals of three weeks with 100 μg/dose (3 foals) or 500 μg/dose (3 foals) of purified PS-II antigen with aluminum hydroxide adjuvant, or with a placebo preparation (2 foals) containing adjuvant alone. RESULTS No injection site swelling, pain or fever was observed after vaccination. Two of the three foals receiving 100 μg/dose, and three out of three foals receiving 500 μg/dose of PS-II responded with increases in serum IgM antibodies. No control foals that received the placebo had IgM responses to PS-II. There was a trend towards a higher response rate in foals receiving 500 μg PS-II one week after second vaccination when compared to control foals and towards higher concentrations of serum IgM antibodies in foals receiving 500 μg PS-II. CONCLUSIONS No adverse reactions were observed following vaccination with PS-II in foals; Serum IgM immune responses were induced by vaccination. A polysaccharide-based vaccine for C. difficile in horses deserves further investigation.
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Carvalho GM, Ramos CP, Lobato FCF, Guedes RMC, Giaretta PR, Silva ROS. Laboratory diagnosis of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in domestic animals: A short review. Anaerobe 2022; 75:102574. [PMID: 35472506 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite the known importance of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection (CDI) in animals, there are no published guidelines for the diagnosis of CDI. The performance of the available commercial methods, all standardized for human stool samples, can vary according to the animal species. Thus, the aim of the present study was to review the literature on the detection of C. difficile in pigs, horses, and dogs. The detection of toxins A and B using enzyme immunoassays seems to have low performance in piglet and dog samples, while it shows high sensitivity for the diagnosis of CDI in foals. On the other hand, tests for the detection of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) have a high sensitivity towards detection of C. difficile in animal samples, suggesting that it can be an adequate screening method. A few studies have evaluated real-time PCR or nucleic acid amplification tests in animal samples and, so far, these methods have also shown a low performance for the detection of C. difficile in animals. Although the intestinal lesions caused by CDI can vary among animal species, histopathology can be a useful auxiliary tool for postmortem diagnosis in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Muniz Carvalho
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627. Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Carolina Pantuzza Ramos
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627. Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Francisco Carlos Faria Lobato
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627. Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Roberto Maurício Carvalho Guedes
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627. Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Paula Roberta Giaretta
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627. Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Otávio Silveira Silva
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627. Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP, 31270-901, Brazil.
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Uzal FA, Arroyo LG, Navarro MA, Gomez DE, Asín J, Henderson E. Bacterial and viral enterocolitis in horses: a review. J Vet Diagn Invest 2021; 34:354-375. [PMID: 34763560 DOI: 10.1177/10406387211057469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteritis, colitis, and enterocolitis are considered some of the most common causes of disease and death in horses. Determining the etiology of these conditions is challenging, among other reasons because different causes produce similar clinical signs and lesions, and also because some agents of colitis can be present in the intestine of normal animals. We review here the main bacterial and viral causes of enterocolitis of horses, including Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens type A NetF-positive, C. perfringens type C, Clostridioides difficile, Clostridium piliforme, Paeniclostridium sordellii, other clostridia, Rhodococcus equi, Neorickettsia risticii, Lawsonia intracellularis, equine rotavirus, and equine coronavirus. Diarrhea and colic are the hallmark clinical signs of colitis and enterocolitis, and the majority of these conditions are characterized by necrotizing changes in the mucosa of the small intestine, colon, cecum, or in a combination of these organs. The presumptive diagnosis is based on clinical, gross, and microscopic findings, and confirmed by detection of some of the agents and/or their toxins in the intestinal content or feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino Laboratory, USA
| | - Luis G Arroyo
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mauricio A Navarro
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino Laboratory, USA.,Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Diego E Gomez
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Javier Asín
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino Laboratory, USA
| | - Eileen Henderson
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino Laboratory, USA
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Faecal bacterial composition in horses with and without free faecal liquid: a case control study. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4745. [PMID: 33637818 PMCID: PMC7910430 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83897-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Free faecal liquid (FFL) is a condition in horses which manifests as differential defecation of solid and liquid phases of faeces. The etiology of FFL is currently unknown, but deviances in the hindgut microbiota has been suggested to be of importance. The present study aimed to compare the faecal bacterial composition of farm-matched horses with (case, n = 50) and without (control, n = 50) FFL. Samples were collected at three different occasions. The V3 and V4 regions of the 16S rRNA gene were amplified and sequenced using Illumina sequencing. Also, samples were cultivated for detection of Clostridioides difficile and Clostridium perfringens. Analysis revealed similar faecal bacterial composition between case and control horses, but an effect of sampling period (p = 0.0001). Within sampling periods, 14 genera were present in higher or lower proportions in case compared to control horses in at least one sampling period. Compared to controls, case horses had higher relative abundance of Alloprevotella (adjusted p < 0.04) and lower relative abundance of Bacillus spp. (adjusted p < 0.03) in at least two sampling periods. All horses tested negative for C. difficile and C. perfringens by culture of faeces. Further studies are required to establish the clinical relevance of specific bacterial taxa in FFL.
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Nomura M, Kuroda T, Tamura N, Muranaka M, Niwa H. Mortality, clinical findings, predisposing factors and treatment of Clostridioides difficile colitis in Japanese thoroughbred racehorses. Vet Rec 2020; 187:e14. [PMID: 32201380 DOI: 10.1136/vr.105605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although Clostridioides difficile-associated diseases (CDAD) is considered to be associated with colitis in horses, few studies have been performed with a focus on the characteristics of CDAD in thoroughbred racehorses. METHODS Between 2010 and 2018, a test for C. difficile was performed using faecal samples from 137 thoroughbred racehorses with colitis presenting with diarrhoea and fever. The mortality rate, clinical findings, predisposing factors and the selected treatments were investigated in a retrospective manner. RESULTS Twenty-four cases were diagnosed as CDAD and 113 as non-CDAD. The mortality rate was significantly higher in the CDAD group (83 per cent) than that in the non-CDAD group (34 per cent). The levels of serum amyloid A, blood urea nitrogen and packed cell volume at initial presentation were also significantly higher, and those of total protein and albumin were significantly lower in the CDAD group. The development of CDAD was associated with the administration of antimicrobials, surgery and hospitalisation. No significant improvement in mortality was observed for any of the selected treatment in both groups. CONCLUSION CDAD in thoroughbred racehorses was identified as a high mortality disease with rapid progression of systemic inflammation and deterioration of the circulatory state. Further investigation is required to improve the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoi Nomura
- The Horse Racing School, Japan Racing Association, Shiroi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Taisuke Kuroda
- Clinical Science & Pathobiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Norihisa Tamura
- Clinical Science & Pathobiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Masanori Muranaka
- Racehorse Hospital, Miho Training Center, Japan Racing Association, Inashiki, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Niwa
- Microbiology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
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9
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Clostridioides (Clostridium) Difficile in Food-Producing Animals, Horses and Household Pets: A Comprehensive Review. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7120667. [PMID: 31835413 PMCID: PMC6955671 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7120667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is ubiquitous in the environment and is also considered as a bacterium of great importance in diarrhea-associated disease for humans and different animal species. Food animals and household pets are frequently found positive for toxigenic C. difficile without exposing clinical signs of infection. Humans and animals share common C. difficile ribotypes (RTs) suggesting potential zoonotic transmission. However, the role of animals for the development of human infection due to C. difficile remains unclear. One major public health issue is the existence of asymptomatic animals that carry and shed the bacterium to the environment, and infect individuals or populations, directly or through the food chain. C. difficile ribotype 078 is frequently isolated from food animals and household pets as well as from their environment. Nevertheless, direct evidence for the transmission of this particular ribotype from animals to humans has never been established. This review will summarize the current available data on epidemiology, clinical presentations, risk factors and laboratory diagnosis of C. difficile infection in food animals and household pets, outline potential prevention and control strategies, and also describe the current evidence towards a zoonotic potential of C. difficile infection.
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Non-human C. difficile Reservoirs and Sources: Animals, Food, Environment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1050:227-243. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-72799-8_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Hepworth-Warren KL, Hay Kraus BL, Wong DM, Krull AC, Metcalf GL. Septic peritonitis in a Percheron mare associated with Clostridium haemolyticum. EQUINE VET EDUC 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. L. Hepworth-Warren
- Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center; College of Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University; Ames Iowa USA
| | - B. L. Hay Kraus
- Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center; College of Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University; Ames Iowa USA
| | - D. M. Wong
- Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center; College of Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University; Ames Iowa USA
| | - A. C. Krull
- Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center; College of Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University; Ames Iowa USA
| | - G. L. Metcalf
- Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center; College of Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University; Ames Iowa USA
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12
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Kovač M, Huskamp B, Scheidemann W, Toth J, Tambur Z. Survival and Evaluation of Clinical and Laboratory Variables as Prognostic Indicators in Horses Hospitilized with Acute Diarrhea: 342 Cases (1995-2015). ACTA VET-BEOGRAD 2017. [DOI: 10.1515/acve-2017-0029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A retrospective study was performed on 342 horses with acute diarrhea (equine colitis). Clinical and laboratory data were obtained upon arrival at the equine hospital. The main focus of this study was to find the difference between the clinical and laboratory variables of surviving and deceased acute colitis horses before the beginning of medical treatment, with the aim to provide a better guideline for determining the prognosis of survival. According to this retrospective study the lethality rate of acute equine colitis was 41.93 %. The time interval from the onset of acute diarrhea to the horse being taken to the clinic was significantly longer in the case of horses which had not survived. The heart rate, hematocrit, blood pH, blood hydrogen carbonate concentration, base excess and HCT/TPP ratio were shown to be significantly related to the survival of horses with colitis. Thus, the hematocrit, appeared to be the most relevant predictor of the outcome of acute equine colitis. Body temperature, respiration rate, total plasma protein and white blood cell count, did not show any prognostic significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milomir Kovač
- Veterinary Clinic – New Century, Skryabin Moscow State Veterinary Academy; Moskow, Krasnogorsky district, Nikolo-Uryupino , 143421, Russian Federation
| | | | | | - Joseph Toth
- Veterinary Clinic – Gescher-Hochmoor, Gescher , Germany
| | - Zoran Tambur
- Instittute of Hygiene, Military Medical Academy, Belgrade, Serbia and Faculty of Stomatology in Pančevo, Pančevo , Serbia
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Olivo G, Lucas TM, Borges AS, Silva ROS, Lobato FCF, Siqueira AK, da Silva Leite D, Brandão PE, Gregori F, de Oliveira-Filho JP, Takai S, Ribeiro MG. Enteric Pathogens and Coinfections in Foals with and without Diarrhea. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:1512690. [PMID: 28116290 PMCID: PMC5223019 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1512690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Diarrhea is a major clinical problem affecting foals up to 3 months of age. The aim of this study was to identify enteric microorganisms involved in monoinfections and coinfections and the associated virulence factors in healthy and diarrheic foals. Diarrheic (D) (n = 56) and nondiarrheic (ND) foals (n = 60) up to three months of age were studied. Fecal samples were analyzed for identification of infectious agents (microbiological culturing, molecular techniques, and microscopic analyses). Escherichia coli fimH (30% versus 25%), Salmonella spp. (25% versus 7%), Strongyloides westeri (25% versus 25%), Clostridium perfringens type A (21% versus 10%), E. coli ag43 (20% versus 35%), Strongylus (11% versus 18%), and vapA-positive Rhodococcus equi (5% versus 2%) were the most frequent enteric pathogens detected in D and ND foals, respectively. The frequency of toxin A-positive C. perfringens was significantly increased in the D (p = 0.033) compared with the ND animals. R. equi strains harboring virulent plasmids were also identified (VapA 85-kb type I and VapA 87-kb type I) in D and ND foals. Coinfections were observed in 46% of the D and 33% of the ND foals. Our results demonstrate the great diversity of enteric pathogens, virulence factors, and coinfections involved in enteric infections of foals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovane Olivo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Thays Mizuki Lucas
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene and Public Health, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Secorun Borges
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Amanda Keller Siqueira
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Bioagents, Campinas State University (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Domingos da Silva Leite
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Bioagents, Campinas State University (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo Eduardo Brandão
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fábio Gregori
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Shinji Takai
- Department of Animal Hygiene, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori, Japan
| | - Márcio Garcia Ribeiro
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene and Public Health, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
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14
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Epidemiology and Antimicrobial Resistance in Clostridium difficile With Special Reference to the Horse. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40588-016-0029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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15
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Rodriguez C, Taminiau B, Van Broeck J, Delmée M, Daube G. Clostridium difficile in Food and Animals: A Comprehensive Review. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 932:65-92. [PMID: 27350639 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2016_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Zoonoses are infections or diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans through direct contact, close proximity or the environment. Clostridium difficile is ubiquitous in the environment, and the bacterium is able to colonise the intestinal tract of both animals and humans. Since domestic and food animals frequently test positive for toxigenic C. difficile, even without showing any signs of disease, it seems plausible that C. difficile could be zoonotic. Therefore, animals could play an essential role as carriers of the bacterium. In addition, the presence of the spores in different meats, fish, fruits and vegetables suggests a risk of foodborne transmission. This review summarises the current available data on C. difficile in animals and foods, from when the bacterium was first described up to the present.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rodriguez
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium.
| | - B Taminiau
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - J Van Broeck
- Belgian Reference Centre for Clostridium difficile (NRC), Pôle de microbiologie médicale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - M Delmée
- Belgian Reference Centre for Clostridium difficile (NRC), Pôle de microbiologie médicale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - G Daube
- Department of Food Science, University of Liège-Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, bât 43bis Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
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16
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Carriage and acquisition rates of Clostridium difficile in hospitalized horses, including molecular characterization, multilocus sequence typing and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial isolates. Vet Microbiol 2014; 172:309-17. [PMID: 24894133 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile has been identified as a significant agent of diarrhoea and enterocolitis in both foals and adult horses. Hospitalization, antibiotic therapy or changes in diet may contribute to the development of C. difficile infection. Horses admitted to a care unit are therefore at greater risk of being colonized. The aim of this study was to investigate the carriage of C. difficile in hospitalized horses and the possible influence of some risk factors in colonization. During a seven-month period, faecal samples and data relating the clinical history of horses admitted to a veterinary teaching hospital were collected. C. difficile isolates were characterized through toxin profiles, cytotoxicity activity, PCR-ribotyping, antimicrobial resistance and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Ten isolates were obtained with a total of seven different PCR-ribotypes, including PCR-ribotype 014. Five of them were identified as toxinogenic. A high resistance to gentamicin, clindamycin and ceftiofur was found. MLST revealed four different sequencing types (ST), which included ST11, ST26, ST2 and ST15, and phylogenetic analysis showed that most of the isolates clustered in the same lineage. Clinical history suggests that horses frequently harbour toxigenic and non-toxigenic C. difficile and that in most cases they are colonized regardless of the reason for hospitalization; the development of diarrhoea is more unusual.
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Norén T, Johansson K, Unemo M. Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 046 is common among neonatal pigs and humans in Sweden. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20:O2-6. [DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Diab S, Songer G, Uzal F. Clostridium difficile infection in horses: A review. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:42-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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19
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Yan W, Shin KS, Wang SJ, Xiang H, Divers T, McDonough S, Bowman J, Rowlands A, Akey B, Mohamed H, Chang YF. Equine hyperimmune serum protects mice against Clostridium difficile spore challenge. J Vet Sci 2013; 15:249-58. [PMID: 24136208 PMCID: PMC4087227 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2014.15.2.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium (C.) difficile is a common cause of nosocomial diarrhea in horses. Vancomycin and metronidazole have been used as standard treatments but are only moderately effective, which highlights the need for a novel alternative therapy. In the current study, we prepared antiserum of equine origin against both C. difficile toxins A and B as well as whole-cell bacteria. The toxin-neutralizing activities of the antibodies were evaluated in vitro and the prophylactic effects of in vivo passive immunotherapy were demonstrated using a conventional mouse model. The data demonstrated that immunized horses generated antibodies against both toxins A and B that possessed toxin-neutralizing activity. Additionally, mice treated with the antiserum lost less weight without any sign of illness and regained weight back to a normal range more rapidly compared to the control group when challenged orally with 107C. difficile spores 1 day after serum injection. These results indicate that intravenous delivery of hyperimmune serum can protect animals from C. difficile challenge in a dose-dependent manner. Hence, immunotherapy may be a promising prophylactic strategy for preventing C. difficile infection in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Yan
- Animal Health Diagnostic Center, Departments of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Diab SS, Rodriguez-Bertos A, Uzal FA. Pathology and Diagnostic Criteria ofClostridium difficileEnteric Infection in Horses. Vet Pathol 2013; 50:1028-36. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985813489039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. S. Diab
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - A. Rodriguez-Bertos
- Department of Surgery and Internal Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - F. A. Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
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Keen PL, Patrick DM. Tracking Change: A Look at the Ecological Footprint of Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel) 2013; 2:191-205. [PMID: 27029298 PMCID: PMC4790334 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics2020191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the class of pollutants considered as 'emerging contaminants', antibiotic compounds including drugs used in medical therapy, biocides and disinfectants merit special consideration because their bioactivity in the environment is the result of their functional design. Antibiotics can alter the structure and function of microbial communities in the receiving environment and facilitate the development and spread of resistance in critical species of bacteria including pathogens. Methanogenesis, nitrogen transformation and sulphate reduction are among the key ecosystem processes performed by bacteria in nature that can also be affected by the impacts of environmental contamination by antibiotics. Together, the effects of the development of resistance in bacteria involved in maintaining overall ecosystem health and the development of resistance in human, animal and fish pathogens, make serious contributions to the risks associated with environmental pollution by antibiotics. In this brief review, we discuss the multiple impacts on human and ecosystem health of environmental contamination by antibiotic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Keen
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2002-6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - David M Patrick
- School of Population & Public Health, University of British Columbia, 2206 East Mall Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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Silva ROS, Ribeiro MG, Palhares MS, Borges AS, Maranhão RPA, Silva MX, Lucas TM, Olivo G, Lobato FCF. Detection of A/B toxin and isolation of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens from foals. Equine Vet J 2013; 45:671-5. [PMID: 23452044 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING THE STUDY Toxin detection and screening could contribute to knowledge of the transmission patterns, risk factors and epidemiology of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens. OBJECTIVE To isolate C. difficile and C. perfringens and to detect A/B toxins in faecal samples from diarrhoeic and nondiarrhoeic foals. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional observational study. METHODS A total of 153 samples from foals were collected: 139 samples from farms and 14 samples from diarrhoeic foals admitted to a veterinary hospital. The A/B toxins were detected by cytotoxicity assay. All suspected colonies of C. perfringens were subjected to polymerase chain reaction for detection of the major toxin genes (α, β, ε and ι) and for detection of β2-, NetB- and enterotoxin-encoding genes. Furthermore, C. difficile and C. perfringens isolates were evaluated for in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility. RESULTS Seven of 153 (4.6%) samples, all from diarrhoeic foals, were positive for C. difficile A/B toxin. Of these, 5 of 14 (35.7%) were from hospitalised foals, and only 2 of 63 (3.2%) diarrhoeic foal samples were from farms (P = 0.002). Clostridium perfringens was isolated from 31 (20.3%) foals, of which 21 of 76 (27.6%) were diarrhoeic and 10 of 76 (13.2%) were nondiarrhoeic, demonstrating a difference between these 2 groups (P = 0.045). Only 4 strains were positive for the β2-encoding gene (cpb2). All C. difficile and C. perfringens isolates were susceptible to metronidazole and vancomycin. CONCLUSIONS The present report highlights the need for laboratory diagnostics to differentiate C. difficile-associated infection in foals from other causes of diarrhoea to facilitate adequate antimicrobial therapy. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE More studies are needed to clarify the role of C. perfringens as a primary agent of diarrhoea in foals.
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Affiliation(s)
- R O S Silva
- Veterinary School, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil
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Clostridium difficile in foods and animals: history and measures to reduce exposure. Anim Health Res Rev 2013; 14:11-29. [PMID: 23324529 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252312000229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Many articles have summarized the changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) in humans, but the emerging presence of C. difficile in foods and animals and possible measures to reduce human exposure to this important pathogen have been infrequently addressed. CDIs have traditionally been assumed to be restricted to health-care settings. However, recent molecular studies indicate that this is no longer the case; animals and foods might be involved in the changing epidemiology of CDIs in humans; and genome sequencing is disproving person-to-person transmission in hospitals. Although zoonotic and foodborne transmission have not been confirmed, it is evident that susceptible people can be inadvertently exposed to C. difficile from foods, animals, or their environment. Strains of epidemic clones present in humans are common in companion and food animals, raw meats, poultry products, vegetables, and ready-to-eat foods, including salads. In order to develop science-based prevention strategies, it is critical to understand how C. difficile reaches foods and humans. This review contextualizes the current understanding of CDIs in humans, animals, and foods. Based on available information, we propose a list of educational measures that could reduce the exposure of susceptible people to C. difficile. Enhanced educational efforts and behavior change targeting medical and non-medical personnel are needed.
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Payne RJ, Compston PC. Short- and long-term results following standing fracture repair in 34 horses. Equine Vet J 2012; 44:721-5. [PMID: 22506811 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00569.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY Standing fracture repair in the horse is a recently described surgical procedure and currently there are few follow-up data. This case series contains 2 novel aspects in the standing horse: repair of incomplete sagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx and medial condylar repair from a lateral aspect. OBJECTIVES To describe outcome in a case series of horses that had lower limb fractures repaired under standing sedation at Rossdales Equine Hospital. METHOD Case records for all horses that had a fracture surgically repaired, by one surgeon at Rossdales Equine Hospital, under standing sedation and local anaesthesia up until June 2011, were retrieved. Hospital records, owner/trainer telephone questionnaire and the Racing Post website were used to evaluate follow-up. RESULTS Thirty-four horses satisfied the inclusion criteria. Fracture sites included the proximal phalanx (incomplete sagittal fracture, n = 14); the third metacarpal bone (lateral condyle, n = 12, and medial condyle, n = 7); and the third metatarsal bone (lateral condyle, n = 1). One horse required euthanasia due to caecal rupture 10 days post operatively. Twenty horses (66.7% of those with available follow-up) have returned to racing. Where available, mean time from operation to return to racing was 226 days (range 143-433 days). CONCLUSIONS Standing fracture repair produced similar results to fracture repair under general anaesthesia in terms of both the number of horses that returned to racing and the time between surgery and race. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE Repair of lower limb fracture in the horse under standing sedation is a procedure that has the potential for tangible benefits, including avoidance of the inherent risks of general anaesthesia. The preliminary findings in this series of horses are encouraging and informative when discussing options available prior to fracture repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Payne
- Rossdales Equine Hospital, Exning, Newmarket, UK
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Keessen E, Gaastra W, Lipman L. Clostridium difficile infection in humans and animals, differences and similarities. Vet Microbiol 2011; 153:205-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2010] [Revised: 03/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Thean S, Elliott B, Riley TV. Clostridium difficile in horses in Australia--a preliminary study. J Med Microbiol 2011; 60:1188-1192. [PMID: 21436371 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.030908-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
During a 24 month period from 2007 to 2009, 174 faecal specimens from horses in Australia (predominantly from Western Australia) were tested for Clostridium difficile. C. difficile was isolated from 14 (23 %) of 62 diarrhoeal animals (including 10 foals) and from none of 112 healthy adult horses. These isolates were toxin profiled by PCR for toxin A, toxin B and binary toxin, and ribotyped. Ten of the equine isolates were A(+)B(+)CDT(-). Other toxin profiles detected were A(-)B(-)CDT(+) (one isolate), A(+)B(+)CDT(+) (two isolates) and A(-)B(-)CDT(-) (three isolates). There were six different ribotypes detected in the horses, ribotype 012 being the most common with six isolates. Two horses (one adult and one foal) had two strains of C. difficile isolated on different days. These strains had the same toxin profile but different ribotypes. None of the equine isolates was ribotype 078, which is A(+)B(+)CDT(+) and a significant cause of animal disease overseas. All isolates were susceptible to metronidazole and vancomycin. These results suggest that the epidemiology of C. difficile in horses in Australia is currently similar to that in other parts of the world, but requires further surveillance to monitor changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Thean
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Nedlands 6009, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Briony Elliott
- Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Thomas V Riley
- Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009, Western Australia, Australia.,Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Nedlands 6009, Western Australia, Australia
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27
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Preliminary molecular analysis of Clostridium difficile isolates from healthy horses in northern Italy. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 33:e25-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2009.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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28
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Dubberke ER, Haslam DB, Lanzas C, Bobo LD, Burnham CAD, Gröhn YT, Tarr PI. The ecology and pathobiology of Clostridium difficile infections: an interdisciplinary challenge. Zoonoses Public Health 2010; 58:4-20. [PMID: 21223531 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2010.01352.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is a well recognized pathogen of humans and animals. Although C. difficile was first identified over 70 years ago, much remains unknown in regards to the primary source of human acquisition and its pathobiology. These deficits in our knowledge have been intensified by dramatic increases in both the frequency and severity of disease in humans over the last decade. The changes in C. difficile epidemiology might be due to the emergence of a hypervirulent stain of C. difficile, ageing of the population, altered risk of developing infection with newer medications, and/or increased exposure to C. difficile outside of hospitals. In recent years, there have been numerous reports documenting C. difficile contamination of various foods, and reports of similarities between strains that infect animals and strains that infect humans as well. The purposes of this review are to highlight the many challenges to diagnosing, treating, and preventing C. difficile infection in humans, and to stress that collaboration between human and veterinary researchers is needed to control this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Dubberke
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
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29
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Abstract
The development of diarrhea among hospitalized horses is a major concern for equine veterinary hospitals and referral centers. It is a potential complication of hospitalization for surgical or medical procedures and can contribute to the morbidity and mortality of horses with gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal diseases. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to pinpoint the exact cause of acute diarrhea or colitis, and in most cases, the specific etiologic agent is presumptive or undetermined. This article discusses the major etiologic agents of diarrhea in hospitalized horses, considers factors that place hospitalized horses at special risk for diarrhea, and examines several infectious colitis outbreaks that have occurred at veterinary referral centers.
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30
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Taha S, Johansson O, Rivera Jonsson S, Heimer D, Krovacek K. Toxin production by and adhesive properties of Clostridium difficile isolated from humans and horses with antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2007; 30:163-74. [PMID: 17239950 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2006.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is a common nosocomial pathogen in humans and animals that causes diarrhea and colitis following antibiotic therapy. Isolates of C. difficile obtained from faecal material from 20 human patients and 6 equine subjects with antibiotic-associated diarrhea were investigated regarding production of toxins A and B, their capacity to adhere to the human intestinal Caco-2 cell line and equine intestinal cells, and for the presence of fimbriae. The results showed that most (17/20) of the human clinical isolates produced both toxins A and B. One of the human isolates proved toxin A-negative/toxin B-positive. All (6/6) horse isolates were positive for both toxins A and B. Both the human and horse isolates possessed the capacity to adhere, to varying degree, to human and equine intestinal cells. It appeared that human isolates produced greater amounts of toxin B, and that there was a host-species dependency on ability to attach to intestinal epithelial cells. No fimbriae were found in any of the investigated isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawsan Taha
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, SLU, Box 7036, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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31
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Arroyo LG, Stämpfli HR, Weese JS. Potential role of Clostridium difficile as a cause of duodenitis-proximal jejunitis in horses. J Med Microbiol 2006; 55:605-608. [PMID: 16585649 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46334-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Duodenitis-proximal jejunitis (DPJ) is an idiopathic condition in the horse characterized by inflammation and oedema of the duodenum and proximal jejunum. Clinical signs include colic, ileus, depression, fluid accumulation in the small intestine and stomach, and endotoxaemia. The objective of this study was to investigate prospectively the role of Clostridium difficile in this idiopathic disease. Nasogastric reflux from 10 consecutive cases with DPJ and 16 consecutive horses with other causes of nasogastric reflux was cultured for C. difficile, other Clostridium spp., and Salmonella. Toxigenic strains of C. difficile were isolated from 10/10 (100%) of horses with DPJ and 1/16 controls (P<0.0001). No other known pathogenic clostridia were isolated from either group. Results of this study suggest that C. difficile might be an important cause of this syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis G Arroyo
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada, N1G 2WI
| | - Henry R Stämpfli
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada, N1G 2WI
| | - J Scott Weese
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada, N1G 2WI
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