Calf Barn Design to Optimize Health and Ease of Management

Associations among antimicrobial use, calf management practices, and antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli from a pooled fecal sample in calves on Canadian dairy farms: A cross-sectional study

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine associations between calf management practices, the number of antimicrobial treatments, and antimicrobial resistance in preweaning heifers on Canadian dairy farms. A composite of 5 fecal samples from preweaning calves was collected from 142 dairy farms in 5 provinces and analyzed for phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility with the microbroth dilution method. Questionnaires were used to capture herd characteristics and calf management practices used on the farm. Calf treatment records were collected during the farm visits. Escherichia coli was isolated from all 142 fecal samples with the highest resistance to tetracycline (41%), followed by sulfisoxazole (36%), streptomycin (32%), chloramphenicol (28%), ampicillin (16%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (15%), ceftriaxone (4.2%), cefoxitin (2.8%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (2.1%), ciprofloxacin (2.1%), nalidixic acid (2.1%), azithromycin (1.4%), and gentamicin (1.4%). Multidrug resistance was observed in 37% of E. coli isolates. Three-quarters of farms used fresh colostrum as the most common type of colostrum fed to calves. Colostrum quality was checked on 49% of farms, but the transfer of passive immunity was only checked on 32% of farms in the last 12 mo. Almost 70% of farms used straw or hay or a combination as the bedding material for calves. Among the 142 farms, a complete set of calf records were collected from 71 farms. In a multivariable logistic regression model, farms with ≥1.99 to 32.57 antimicrobial treatments/calf-year were 3.2 times more likely to have multidrug resistant E. coli in calf feces compared farms with <1.99 antimicrobial treatments/calf-year. Farms using hay or straw beddings were 5.1 times less likely to have multidrug resistant E. coli compared with those with other bedding materials including shavings or sawdust. Bedding management practices on farms may need to be investigated to reduce the potential effect on disseminating multidrug resistant bacteria.

A living lab approach to understanding dairy farmers' needs of technologies and data to improve herd health: Focus groups from 6 European countries

For successful development and adoption of technology on dairy farms, farmers need to be included in the innovation process. However, the design of agricultural technologies usually takes a top-down approach with little involvement of end-users at the early stages. Living Labs offer a methodology that involve end-users throughout the development process and emphasize the importance of understanding users' needs. Currently, exploration of dairy farmers' needs of technologies has been limited to specific types of technology (e.g., smartphone apps) and adult cattle. The aim of this study was to use a Living Lab approach to identify dairy farmers' needs of data and technologies to improve herd health and inform innovation development. Eighteen focus groups were conducted with, in total, 80 dairy farmers from Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the UK. Data were analyzed using Template Analysis and 6 themes were generated which represented the fundamental needs of autonomy, comfort, competence, community and relatedness, purpose, and security. Farmers favored technologies that provided them with convenience, facilitated their knowledge and understanding of problems on farm, and allowed them to be self-reliant. Issues with data sharing and accessibility, and usability of software were barriers to technology use. Furthermore, farmers were facing problems around recruitment and management of labor and needed ways to reduce stress. Controlling aspects of the barn environment, such as air quality, hygiene, and stocking density, was a particular concern in relation to youngstock management. In conclusion, the findings suggest that developers of farm technologies may want to include farmers in the design process to ensure a positive user experience and improve accessibility. The needs identified in this study can be used as a framework when designing farm technologies to strengthen need satisfaction and reduce any potential harm toward needs.

A systematic review of the relationship between housing environmental factors and bovine respiratory disease in preweaned calves - Part 1: Ammonia, air microbial count, particulate matter and endotoxins

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in calves across diverse management systems. Despite expert opinion often citing the influence of housing environment on the level of respiratory disease in calf groups, there have been few reviews of environmental factors that predispose to BRD. This systematic review was undertaken to identify the measurable environmental variables associated with respiratory disease in housed preweaned calves. To achieve this Pubmed, CAB Direct and Scopus databases were searched. To be considered for inclusion, publications had to be fully published in English, published before 24 November, 2022 and include at least one measurable/ manipulated environmental variable and a standardized method of BRD detection. Twelve publications were included in this review. These examined a wide range of risk factors including air microbial count (four publications), air particulate matter (one publication); air endotoxins (one publication) and air ammonia (four publications). From the included publications, a statistically significant relationship to BRD was identified in 2/4 examining air microbial count, 1/1 examining air particulate matter, 1/1 examining air endotoxins and 2/4 examining air ammonia. This review indicated a paucity of evidence from the peer-review literature demonstrating a significant association between the many investigated exposure factors and BRD occurrence. An optimal environment for housed calves could not be clearly identified in this review.

A Survey of Calf Housing Facilities Pre-Weaning, Management Practices and Farmer Perceptions of Calf Welfare on Irish Dairy Farms

It is unknown whether calf rearing facilities in the Republic of Ireland are fit for purpose, or if facilities sufficiently consider calf and farmer welfare. The aim of this study was to review current calf housing facilities and management practices on Irish farms to determine if calves are reared in structurally appropriate facilities with management decisions that safeguard calf and farmer welfare. Fifty-one farms located in the Munster region in the Republic of Ireland were visited twice: (1) Pre-calving (December–January) and (2) During peak calving (January–March). During visit one, herd owners completed a questionnaire regarding calf housing and management practices on-farm and each facility used to rear calves was measured (measurement of cubic air capacity, ventilation, pen area, drainage etc.) without calves being present. Visit two consisted of a short interview with the principal calf manager to validate previously asked questions and environmental based measurements of each calf house that had been recorded, with any deviation from the first visit noted (measurements of temperature, wind speed, light intensity, facility provisions in-house and in-pen; calves present). Average herd size was 254, operating a spring calving system with a median calving season length of 11.6 weeks. While most farms expanded (88%; N = 51), this did not appear to have negatively affected calf space allowances (9.9% houses overcrowded at a space allowance of 1.5 m2/calf; N = 121). Calves were most commonly housed in group sizes of <12 (71.6% of all groupings; N = 394), with farmers moving away from individual housing for a period immediately post-birth, to grouping them immediately instead (58.8%; N = 51). The number of farmers testing colostrum was 31.4% (N = 51). Although the calving season was compact, most farmers were unconcerned about the upcoming spring workload (58.8%; N = 51). Farms appeared sufficiently prepared for spring, with most using the same number or less sheds during visit two than declared in visit one (76.5%; N = 51). To conclude, farmers made sufficient provision for calf housing and space allowances for calves that facilitated group housing post-birth. While structural and management components of rearing systems appear in line with sectoral recommendations, certain areas require attention on many farms (e.g., colostrum testing) to safeguard calf welfare and reduce the workload associated with calf rearing for farmers.

Comparison of environment quality measurements between 3 types of calf housing in the United Kingdom

Preweaning calves are kept in a range of housing types that offer variable protection against the weather and provide differing internal environments. This cross-sectional observational study assessed the effect of housing type (shed, polytunnel, or hutches) on internal environmental parameters, using 2 blocks of 8-wk measurements from 10 commercial dairy farms in the south of England, covering both summer and winter periods. Continuous measurements for internal and external temperature and humidity were recorded by data logger placed within the calf housing and used to calculate the temperature-humidity index (THI). Weekly point readings were also taken for temperature, humidity, light, air speed, ammonia level, and airborne particulate matter. Airborne bacterial levels were determined at wk 2, 5, and 8 by incubating air samples at 35°C for 24 h in aerobic conditions. Data were analyzed using linear mixed models. Housing type influenced THI significantly in both seasons. In summer, calves were exposed to heat stress conditions (THI ≥72) for 39, 31, and 14 of 46 d in polytunnel housing, hutches, and sheds, respectively. The maximum summer temperature (37.0°C) was recorded in both hutch and polytunnel housing, with sheds remaining consistently cooler (maximum 31.0°C). In winter, the lowest minimum internal temperature recorded was in hutches at -4.5°C, with both the sheds and polytunnel, but not hutches, providing a significant increase in temperature compared with the external environment. Hutches remained ≤ 10°C for 86% of the winter study period. Light levels were reduced in all housing types compared with the external environment. The particulate matter in air that is capable of reaching the lungs (particulate matter <10 μm) was highest in sheds, intermediate in hutches, and lowest in polytunnel housing (0.97 ± 3.75, 0.37 ± 0.44, and 0.20 ± 0.24 mg/m³, respectively). This was mirrored by airborne bacterial numbers, which were also highest in sheds (8,017 ± 2,141 cfu/m³), intermediate in hutches (6,870 ± 2,084 cfu/m³), and lowest in the polytunnel (3,357 ± 2,572 cfu/m³). Round, white, catalase-positive, and oxidase-negative colonies were most prevalent, likely indicating Staphylococcus species. This study demonstrated that UK calves are routinely exposed to either heat or cold stress, especially when housed in hutches or polytunnels. Sheds had the highest levels of particulate matter and airborne bacteria, both known contributory factors for respiratory disease. These findings demonstrate that all calf housing systems result in environmental compromises that could have long-term impacts on calf health and growth; therefore, further studies should identify husbandry and housing modifications to mitigate these factors.

Preparing Male Dairy Calves for the Veal and Dairy Beef Industry

Surplus male dairy calves experience significant health challenges after arrival at the veal and dairy beef facilities. To curb these challenges, the engagement of multiple stakeholders is needed starting with improved care on some dairy farms and better management of transportation. Differing management strategies are also needed if calves arrive at veal and dairy beef facilities under poor condition.

Antimicrobial Resistance in Isolates from Cattle with Bovine Respiratory Disease in Bavaria, Germany

Patterns of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) regarding Pasteurella multocida (n = 345), Mannheimia haemolytica (n = 273), Truperella pyogenes (n = 119), and Bibersteinia trehalosi (n = 17) isolated from calves, cattle and dairy cows with putative bovine respiratory disease syndrome were determined. The aim of this study was to investigate temporal trends in AMR and the influence of epidemiological parameters for the geographic origin in Bavaria, Germany, between July 2015 and June 2020. Spectinomycin was the only antimicrobial agent with a significant decrease regarding not susceptible isolates within the study period (P. multocida 88.89% to 67.82%, M. haemolytica 90.24% to 68.00%). Regarding P. multocida, significant increasing rates of not susceptible isolates were found for the antimicrobials tulathromycin (5.56% to 26.44%) and tetracycline (18.52% to 57.47%). The proportions of multidrug-resistant (MDR) P. multocida isolates (n = 48) increased significantly from 3.70% to 22.90%. The proportions of MDR M. haemolytica and P. multocida isolates (n = 62) were significantly higher in fattening farms (14.92%) compared to dairy farms (3.29%) and also significantly higher on farms with more than 300 animals (19.49%) compared to farms with 100 animals or less (6.92%). The data underline the importance of the epidemiological farm characteristics, here farm type and herd size regarding the investigation of AMR.

A survey of calf management practices and farmer perceptions of calf housing in UK dairy herds

Adoption of optimal management techniques for rearing dairy calves has significant effects on their health, welfare, and productivity. Despite much published literature on best practice, calf morbidity and mortality rates remain high. This survey aimed to establish current calf management practices in the United Kingdom, along with farmer perceptions surrounding different housing types. A survey containing 48 questions was distributed online to UK farmers via social media, online forums, and a convenience sample of veterinary practices and was completed by 216 participants. A descriptive analysis with frequency distributions was calculated, with chi-squared tests, linear regression and multinomial regression performed to assess associations between variables. There was a low level of regular veterinary involvement in day-to-day health decision making for calves (3/216, 1.4%), highlighting the need for appropriate staff training and standard operating procedures to ensure prudent antimicrobial usage. Restricted calf milk feeding remains highly prevalent in the United Kingdom, with most calves fed milk replacer (114/216, 52.8%), twice daily (189/216, 87.5%), initially given milk at 4 L/d (66/216, 30.6%) or 6 L/d (47/216, 21.8%). There was, however, a small number of farmers initially feeding only 2 to 3 L/d (28/216, 13.0%). Euthanasia of bull calves (5/216, 2.3%) and feeding antimicrobial waste milk to calves (8/216, 3.7%) both occurred on some farms. With regard to housing, use of individual calf pens has reduced from around 60% in 2010 to 38.4% in this study (83/216), with this reduction being partly driven by the policy of UK milk buyers. Farmer perceptions indicated that individual housing was thought to help to improve calf health and feed monitoring of calves, suggesting that successful use of group housing requires a higher level of stockmanship. The majority of farmers did not provide fresh bedding to calves on a daily basis (141/216, 65.3%), and relatively few disinfected both the calf housing (38.0%) and ground (47.7%) between calves, suggesting that hygiene practices may require additional attention in farm management protocols.

Stakeholder Perceptions of Disease Management for Dairy Calves: "It's Just Little Things That Make Such a Big Difference"

Calf morbidity and mortality rates are often high in dairy herds, raising animal welfare concerns and negatively affecting farm economic efficiency and future performance. Disease prevention is critical to maintain calves in good health, but interventions are dependent upon the persons conducting them. This paper explores the perceptions of farmers, farm workers, veterinarians, and other advisors on the management of calfhood disease on dairy farms in England. Participants were recruited using purposive and "snowball" sampling, resulting in 40 in-depth, semi-structured interviews-26 with dairy farmers and 14 with advisors. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and thematically coded. Three major themes were derived on the basis of interview data: disease occurrence and treatments, management of calf environment, and the role of stockmanship and perceived control. Respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases in calves were those reported to be most problematic on dairy farms. Limited time and financial resources caused some farmers and advisors to experience a perceived inability to control calf health without antimicrobial treatments. Overall, the findings emphasise the importance of human influences on calf health and disease in the context of influencing the interactions among the host, pathogens, and the environment. Further research should investigate what "attention to detail" means within different farm contexts and practices, as this was believed to be important in the promotion of better husbandry standards and health. We recommend the use of supportive knowledge exchange processes, including facilitation, to empower farmers to promote continuous improvement in calf health.

Pre-Weaned Calf Rearing on Northern Irish Dairy Farms: Part 1. A Description of Calf Management and Housing Design

The first few months of life are of great importance to the longevity and lifetime performance of dairy cows. The nutrition, environment and healthcare management of heifer calves must be sufficient to minimise exposure to stress and disease and enable them to perform to their genetic potential. Lack of reporting of farm management practices in Northern Ireland (NI) makes it difficult to understand where issues impacting health, welfare and performance may occur in the rearing process. The objective of this study was to investigate housing design and management practices of calves on 66 dairy farms across NI over a 3-month period and also identify areas that may cause high risk of poor health and performance in dairy calves. An initial survey was used to detail housing and management practices, with two subsequent visits to each farm used to collect animal and housing-based measurements linked to hygiene management, animal health and performance. Large variations in key elements such as weaning criteria and method, calf grouping method used, nutritional feed plane, and routine hygiene management were identified. The specification of housing, in particular ventilation and stocking density, was highlighted as a potential limiting factor for calf health and performance. Lack of measurement of nutritional inputs, hygiene management practices and calf performance was observed. This poses a risk to farmers' ability to ensure the effectiveness of key management strategies and recognise poor calf performance and health.

Perspectives on the Management of Surplus Dairy Calves in the United States and Canada

The care of surplus dairy calves is a significant issue for the United States and Canadian dairy industries. Surplus dairy calves commonly experience poor welfare as evidenced by high levels of mortality and morbidity, and negative affective states resulting from limited opportunities to express natural behaviors. Many of these challenges are a result of a disaggregated production system, beginning with calf management at the dairy farm of origin and ending at a calf-raising facility, with some calves experiencing long-distance transportation and commingling at auction markets or assembly yards in the interim. Thus, the objectives of this narrative review are to highlight specific challenges associated with raising surplus dairy calves in the U.S. and Canada, how these challenges originate and could be addressed, and discuss future directions that may start with refinements of the current system, but ultimately require a system change. The first critical area to address is the management of surplus dairy calves on the dairy farm of origin. Good neonatal calf care reduces the risk of disease and mortality, however, many dairy farms in Canada and the U.S. do not provide sufficient colostrum or nutrition to surplus calves. Transportation and marketing are also major issues. Calves can be transported more than 24 consecutive hours, and most calves are sold through auction markets or assembly yards which increases disease exposure. Management of calves at calf-raisers is another area of concern. Calves are generally housed individually and fed at low planes of nutrition, resulting in poor affective states and high rates of morbidity and mortality. Strategies to manage high-risk calves identified at arrival could be implemented to reduce disease burden, however, increasing the plane of nutrition and improving housing systems will likely have a more significant impact on health and welfare. However, we argue the current system is not sustainable and new solutions for surplus calves should be considered. A coordinated and holistic approach including substantial change on source dairy farms and multiple areas within the system used to market and raise surplus dairy calves, can lead to more sustainable veal and beef production with improved calf outcomes.

A focus group study of Ontario dairy producer perspectives on neonatal care of male and female calves

Providing optimal calf care remains a challenge on many dairy farms and has important implications for the future health, welfare, and productivity of male and female calves. Recent research suggests that male dairy calves receive a lower quality of care early in life than female calves, but further investigation is required to determine the factors that influence this disparity. The objectives of this study were to understand dairy producer perspectives on neonatal calf care practices and explore differences between male and female calf care. Overall, 23 dairy producers in Ontario, Canada, participated in 4 focus groups about calf care practices that were recorded and evaluated qualitatively using thematic analysis. Major barriers for good calf care included lack of knowledge about the best management practices for calf care and the prioritization of farm resources toward the milking herd. Some producers also noted that farm infrastructure (particularly during challenging weather) and employee training were important limitations. The economic cost of providing good neonatal calf care was important primarily for male calves and acted as a motivation or a barrier depending on the producer's beliefs about calf care and how they chose to market their calves. The primary source of knowledge producers used to develop calf care practices was their own experience, although many also relied on dairy-industry advisors, most often veterinarians. Producers were motivated by social norms, along with intrinsic pride and obligation to provide good calf care, and these motives were influenced by their emotional state. Producers expressed beliefs about which aspects of calf care are most important-notably colostrum management-and appreciated simple and economical solutions to calf-rearing challenges. Calf care practices were varied, and we identified a diversity of knowledge, motivations, and barriers to adopting best management practices, which sometimes differed between male and female calves. Some producers said that they did not know what happened to their male calves after they left the farm and tended to prioritize the care of female over male calves in subtle ways, such as less timely provision of colostrum. The infrastructure investment and other costs associated with caring for male calves often limited their care, but producers were still motivated to provide adequate care for male calves. These findings represent potential targets for additional research and intervention strategies to improve calf care practices on dairy farms.

Effects of Airspeed on the Respiratory Rate, Rectal Temperature, and Immunity Parameters of Dairy Calves Housed Individually in an Axial-Fan-Ventilated Barn

At many modern dairy farms, calves raised in barns are kept in individual stalls separated by solid partitions, which act as barriers. Ventilation fans blowing air perpendicular to these stalls only provide the optimal airflow to the first few calves, while those further away receive a slower airflow. To ascertain whatever effects different airflow speeds may have on the health of animals kept in stalls located at increasing distances from ventilation fans, we divided a select group of 43 Holstein dairy calves into six subgroups based on age, and each subgroup was subjected to either a specified high-speed or low-speed airflow as follows: (1) Six 3-day-olds received high-speed airflow (D3-HA); (2) Six 3-day-olds received low-speed airflow (D3-LA); (3) Eight 19 (±3)-day-olds received high-speed airflow (D19-HA); (4) Eight 19 (± 3)-day-olds received low-speed airflow (D19-LA); (5) Eight 29 (±3)-day-olds received high-speed airflow (D29-HA); and (6) Seven 29 (±3)-day-olds received medium-speed airflow (D29-MA). These trials show that the rectal temperatures and respiratory rates of D19-LA (39.37 °C; 72.90 breaths/min) were significantly higher than those of D19-HA (39.14 °C; 61.57 breaths/min) (p ≤ 0.05), and those of D29-MA (39.40 °C; 75.52 breaths/min) were significantly higher than those of D29-HA (39.20 °C; 68.41 breaths/min) (p ≤ 0.05). At 33 (±3) days of age, those calves receiving high-speed airflow (p ≤ 0.05) registered significantly higher immunoglobulins A and M than calves receiving low-speed flow. Those calves subjected to a high-speed airflow also registered significantly lower tumor necrosis factor levels than those receiving low-speed flow (p ≤ 0.05). Among the 29 to 43-day-old calves, no significant differences in immunity parameters were found to exist between groups D29-HA and D29-MA. On the basis of these findings, we were able to conclude that in the warm season, when the calves were less than 0.5 months old, low-speed (0.17-0.18 m/s) airflows had no significant effect on calves; when the calves were 1 month old, low-speed airflow (0.20-0.21 m/s) may impair the immune functions; when the calves were 1 to 1.5 months old, the airflow velocity higher than 0.9 m/s can meet the needs of the calf without a negative impact on the calf.

How Does Housing Influence Bovine Respiratory Disease in Dairy and Veal Calves?

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in young cattle. Housing factors that lead to poor ventilation and stagnant air are often considered the primary reasons for high levels of endemic disease. This article reviews the literature from the past 40 years in order to determine which housing factors have been associated with respiratory disease. Penning strategy and its affect on calf respiratory health were most commonly studied. The wide variation in disease definitions and quality of reporting make drawing conclusions from the available literature extraordinarily difficult.