Canine Aggression Toward Unfamiliar People and Dogs

Realities, perceptions, and strategies for implementation of an ethical population management program for dogs and cats on university campuses

Stray dogs and cats pose significant challenges for public health and animal welfare due to their potential involvement in zoonotic disease transmission, accidents, and aggressions. Large urban centers exacerbated challenges due to the presence of these animals in public areas with high human density. Ethical Population Management Programs (EPMP), rooted in the One Health approach, are crucial for addressing this issue comprehensively. This study aimed to demonstrate the approach on cats and dogs EPMP and evaluate the perceptions of academic community regarding EPMP implementation on a campus situated in urban territory. The study was conducted at the Pampulha campus of UFMG in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. In response to issues of animal abandonment and conflicts, the Permanent Commission for Animal Policies (CPPA-UFMG) was established in 2019 to manage the campus's dog, cat, and wildlife populations. The commission implemented the Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) method, along with health assessments and vaccinations for animals. Interviews were conducted with campus staff to gauge their perception of animal management strategies. Retrospective and prospective analyses of the commission's actions were carried out to assess implementation processes and challenges. The animal population survey conducted on campus between July 2018 and September 2021 revealed a total of 266 animals recorded. Among these animals, 195 were cats (73.3%) and 71 were dogs (26.7%), with the majority being adults. Subsequent surveys in 2019 and 2021 showed a slight increase in the animal population, with measures such as sterilization contributing to population control. Perception analysis among campus users indicated strategies such as TNR were widely endorsed for population control. The employees perception questionnaire was applied to 115 individuals, representing 42 units/departments and five gates. Associations were found between these beliefs and support for institutional actions. The majority favored sterilization (92.17%) and agreed that TNR is an appropriate approach to population control. Overall, the study reflects a community concerned about animal welfare and supportive of measures to address population management and cruelty prevention. The continuous efforts of the university's CPPA have led to stability in the resident animal population, indicating success in achieving population control objectives.

Domestication constrains the ability of dogs to convey emotions via facial expressions in comparison to their wolf ancestors

Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are the domestically bred descendant of wolves (Canis lupus). However, selective breeding has profoundly altered facial morphologies of dogs compared to their wolf ancestors. We demonstrate that these morphological differences limit the abilities of dogs to successfully produce the same affective facial expressions as wolves. We decoded facial movements of captive wolves during social interactions involving nine separate affective states. We used linear discriminant analyses to predict affective states based on combinations of facial movements. The resulting confusion matrix demonstrates that specific combinations of facial movements predict nine distinct affective states in wolves; the first assessment of this many affective facial expressions in wolves. However, comparative analyses with kennelled rescue dogs revealed reduced ability to predict affective states. Critically, there was a very low predictive power for specific affective states, with confusion occurring between negative and positive states, such as Friendly and Fear. We show that the varying facial morphologies of dogs (specifically non-wolf-like morphologies) limit their ability to produce the same range of affective facial expressions as wolves. Confusion among positive and negative states could be detrimental to human-dog interactions, although our analyses also suggest dogs likely use vocalisations to compensate for limitations in facial communication.

Veterinary students' proximity to and interpretation of a simulated "aggressive" dog before and after training

Dog "aggression" in the veterinary practice is commonplace. Therefore, student knowledge and education about dog behaviour and the ability to interpret "aggressive" behaviour is important from a human injury prevention and dog welfare perspective. The study aimed to compare first-year veterinary students' perceived safest proximity to both an "aggressive" and non-reactive simulated dog, both before and after a teaching intervention about canine behaviour and a handling practical. It also examined student confidence and their ability to identify "aggressive" behaviours. Forty first year veterinary students took part in two surveys. Each survey included two videos: one of a simulated dog displaying "aggressive" behaviour, based on the 'Canine Ladder of Aggression'; and another displaying non-reactive (passive behaviours without reaction to the participants) behaviours. Each video depicted the slow and consistent approach towards the virtual dog within a virtual indoor environment, and participants were asked to press stop if or when they would stop approaching the dog. In the "aggressive" scenario, there was a reduction in the approach-stop time from survey 1 (median = 17.8 s) to survey 2 (median = 15.2 s) in the intervention group (p = 0.018) but not in the control group (p = 0.147). Regarding confidence, there was a significant increase in the self-reported confidence rating relating to a participant's ability to interpret canine behaviour in both the control (p = 0.011) and intervention (p = 0.003). In conclusion, these results indicate that students using approach-stop videos stayed further away from an "aggressive" virtual dog model if they had undertaken a canine behaviour educational intervention. This novel approach has the potential for further use in teaching and assessment of student knowledge and behaviour which may otherwise be difficult to demonstrate.

The risk of being bitten by a dog is higher on hot, sunny, and smoggy days

Humans commit more violent crimes when temperature and air pollution is higher. Here, we investigate if also the day-to-day rates of dogs biting humans is influenced by environmental factors. 69,525 reports of dogs biting humans, sourced from public records on animal control requests and from ER records, were analyzed. The impact of temperature and air pollutants were evaluated with a zero-inflated Poisson generalized additive model, while controlling for regional and calendar effects. Exposure-response curves were used to assess the association between outcome and major exposure variables. We find that the rates of dogs biting humans increases with increasing temperature and ozone, but not PM2.5 exposure. We also observed that higher UV irradiation levels were related to higher rats of dog bites. We conclude that dogs, or the interactions between humans and dogs, are more hostile on hot, sunny, and smoggy days, indicating that the societal burden of extreme heat and air pollution also includes the costs of animal aggression.

Factors associated with pet dog behavior in Thailand

Background and Aim

Dog behavior problems pose serious public health and economic and animal welfare concerns. There are many factors influencing dog behavior. This study aims to explore factors associated with pet dog behavior in Thailand using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ).

Materials and Methods

The Thai version of the C-BARQ was validated in 2022. The online C-BARQ survey (Google Forms) was advertised and distributed on social media for 3 months. There were a total of 1827 respondents to the survey. The relationship among 12 subscales and variables was analyzed using Spearman's correlation.

Results

"Excitability," "attachment- and attention-seeking," and "chasing" were the three most reported behavior problems. "Trainability," a favored dog behavior, also had a high score in the study. These behaviors were associated with the owner's age, house type, the dog's historical background, the number of dogs and the presence of other species in the household, the dog's training, diet types, and the daily number of meals. The lowest mean score was for "owner-directed aggression," and it was associated with the dog's gender and size, the number of dogs and the presence of other species in the household, the dog's training, and the number of daily meals.

Conclusion

This is the first empirical study demonstrating factors related to dog behavior in Thailand. It provides an in-depth understanding of the prevalence and factors associated with Thai pet dog behavior and important knowledge for further studies to advocate for dog-human relationships and contribute to a reduction in dog abandonment in Thailand.

Citizens' Beliefs Regarding Dog Breed-Specific Legislation. The Case of Romania

This contribution aimed to highlight the importance of the legal framework on human-dog interactions to better understand the "more-than-human cosmopolitanism". Thus, it gives insight into the never-ending debate of how we can share the living space with other forms of life. The study acknowledged the inconsistencies between community members' and experts' opinions on the best methods to prevent dogs' attacks, the imperative to consider concerns for animal welfare and public safety while improving the legitimacy of different implemented measures. The seriousness of the dog control problem determined the enactment of laws to limit or ban dogs purely on their breed/type. The study explores Romanian citizens beliefs regarding law labeled "dangerous" dogs within the context of Romanian breed-specific legislation (Governmental Emergency Ordinance No. 55 of 2002). An overwhelming majority of respondents considered that a dog's dangerousness must be assessed individually, according to each specimen's characteristics, and regardless of the breed/type to which it belongs. A significant percentage of people were unaware of the legal regime in place for "dangerous" dog breeds. Responsible dog ownership intertwined with learning to care could solve the societal annoyance of "blacklisted" dog breeds/type.

Training as enrichment: A critical review

Husbandry training and environmental enrichment are both important advancements associated with current behavioural welfare practices. Additionally, the use of training procedures has been proposed as a form of enrichment, with the implication that training can produce beneficial behavioural welfare results. This paper examines the concept of training as enrichment through three distinct ways training procedures could enrich: (i) training facilitates enrichment usage; (ii) training modifies interactions, conspecific or otherwise; and (iii) training expands behavioural repertoires. Within each category, the paper focuses on past research that provides empirical support for training functioning as enrichment, as well as related areas of research that provide additional evidence. Previous studies support the claim that training is enriching, with additional research necessary to better understand how prevalent and under what conditions training procedures function as enrichment. Future training research should examine these potential enrichment effects, including methodology that allows for comparisons to traditional enrichment, the use of welfare diversity/variability indices, and the effects of learning on trainers and trainees alike.

Influence of gender, neuter status, and training method on police dog narcotics olfaction performance, behavior and welfare

OBJECTIVE

This study was carried out to study the influence of gender, neuter status, and training method on police dog narcotics olfaction performance, behavior, and welfare.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 120 German Shepherds aged 1-3 years were used for this study. The dogs were separated into two experiments. The first experiment (32 dogs and 28 bitches) was used to study the influence of gender on olfaction and smell to narcotics in police dog performance and training methods with behavioral problems and welfare. The second experiment (30 dogs and 30 bitches) was used to study the influence of sexual status (entire or neutered) on the smelling of narcotics in police dog performance by comparing with intact dogs and bitches.

RESULTS

We found that there were significant differences in sex in training to detect narcotics. Male German Shepherds were found to be significantly more trainable than females. Neutering causes a difference in trainability in male and female dogs. Gonadectomy had adverse effects on training. The intact male and female German Shepherds were found to be significantly more trainable than the neutered ones, and the reward-based method was found to be significantly more trainable than punishment. Dog training methods incorporated by punishment result in pain, suffering, emotional instability, symptoms of depression, aggression, unwanted barking, growling at other people, not under control all time, less trainability, increased problematic behavior, and decreased dog welfare.

CONCLUSION

Reward-based method is associated with lower lousy behavior and dogs with good behavior, such as, attachment attention behavior, dogs under the control of handler all times, higher trainability, less problematic behavior, and increased dog welfare.

Behavioral Therapy and Fluoxetine Treatment in Aggressive Dogs: A Case Study

Canine aggression is a major concern, affecting millions of people worldwide, and treatment can be challenging even for skilled veterinarians. Empiric use of fluoxetine is sometimes attempted, although few data regarding long-term effects in aggressive dogs are available. The aim of the study was to investigate clinical effectiveness of fluoxetine (1.5 mg/kg/die PO) combined with a behavior modification program for treatment of canine dominance-related aggression. Circulating levels of fluoxetine, norfluoxetine, and serotonin (5-HT) were also measured. Eight dogs with a diagnosis of dominance aggression (owner-directed) were enrolled. Before treatment (T0), and after one (T1), two (T2), four (T3), and six (T4) months of fluoxetine administration, clinical outcomes were graded using a five-point frequency scale (0-4), and blood samples were collected to measure fluoxetine/norfluoxetine (high-performance liquid chromatography) and 5-HT (ELISA) levels. Following treatment, a decrease in behavioral test scores was observed at T1-T4. Increasing concentrations of circulating fluoxetine and norfluoxetine were measured throughout the follow-up. Correlation between norfluoxetine levels and clinical scores was observed at T4. Starting from T1, a significant decrease in 5-HT levels was observed. Our data suggest that fluoxetine (1.5 mg/kg/day) when associated with behavior treatment is effective in controlling canine aggression over a six-month period, and that, in dogs norfluoxetine levels seem reliable in predicting clinical efficacy.

From more-than-human solidarity to multi-species biographical value: insights from a veterinary school about ethical dilemmas in One Health promotion

This article features a partnership between a veterinary school and a charity that aims to enhance the wellbeing of low-income people. Through this partnership, the charity periodically hosts veterinary clinics for clients and their pets. Even as the veterinarians and veterinary students duly examine people's pets, these pop-up clinics aim to help people and their pets. Hence our analysis revolves around the ethics of 'more-than-human solidarity'. By 'more-than-human solidarity', we mean efforts to help others that either center on or that implicate non-human beings. To delve into the ethical and sociological implications of subsidised veterinary services, and to assist with program planning, we conducted several in-depth interviews with veterinarians. Most substantively, we found that the veterinary school's outreach clinics give rise to multi-species biographical value, which is prized as a pedagogical resource for veterinary students. The veterinarians whom we interviewed felt troubled by the extent to which the pop-up clinics ultimately benefited the veterinary school, but also by the shortage of subsidised veterinary services in the vicinity. Based on these interviews and our own reflections, we invite more scholarship on cultural, economic and political influences that shape the lives of human beings and non-human animals alike.

Dogs' Sociability, Owners' Neuroticism and Attachment Style to Pets as Predictors of Dog Aggression

Simple Summary

It is widely known that psychological characteristics, for example personality traits, can facilitate the occurrence of aggressive behavior. Using the combination of two research methods—questionnaires and behavioral testing—we investigated the associations between a dog’s personality and its aggression towards humans and animals. Due to the close relationship and co-habitation of dogs and humans, we also looked at how the owner’s personality and the dog–human emotional bond, known as attachment style, play a role in dog aggression. Our results indicated that dogs which were aggressive towards humans were less sociable, and had owners who were less emotionally stable, more distant, and less clingy and controlling, compared to non-aggressive dogs. These results emphasize the importance of owner attachment to a dog for dog behavior, and may serve as a foundation for future research on psychosocial factors influencing dog aggression.

Abstract

A dog’s aggressive behavior is influenced by external and internal factors, including its psychological profile. In this study, dogs’ and owners’ personalities and the owners’ attachment style to their dogs were identified and associated with owner-reported dog aggression towards humans and animals. Forty Slovenian owners participated with their dogs, of different breeds and aggression history, sorted into three groups (non-aggressive dogs, dogs aggressive towards humans, and dogs aggressive towards animals). The owners filled out three separate questionnaires that assessed dog aggression history towards different targets, owner’s personality and degree of insecure attachment styles to dogs; namely anxious and avoidant attachment. Dog personality was characterized using a standardized dog mentality assessment test, during which the dog was exposed to nine tasks, performed outside, and dogs were scored based on behaviors they exhibited. The results indicated that dogs which were aggressive towards humans were less sociable than non-aggressive dogs and this was associated with the higher neuroticism scores of their owners. We also found that dogs which were aggressive towards strangers had owners with lower scores for anxious attachment and that dogs which were aggressive towards owners had owners with higher scores for avoidant attachment. These results imply that the psychological profiles of both a dog and its owner influence dog aggression towards humans.

Tools for Managing Feline Problem Behaviours Psychoactive medications

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

When a cat is presented for evaluation of a problem behaviour, it is likely that the cat's wellbeing is negatively affected by the condition. In addition, the owners and any other animals around the cat may also be experiencing negative consequences. When managing these cases, it is important to consider all options (including behaviour modification, environmental changes, medications) that can help to reach an optimal solution. Medication cannot teach the cat how to behave or change a particular behaviour; it can, however, reduce arousal, excitability, reactivity and anxiety.

RATIONALE

The rationale for using psychoactive medications in behavioural medicine, or veterinary psychiatry, is to increase the wellbeing of the animal and to aid the owner and practitioner in managing problem behaviours. Medications should always be used as an adjunct to behavioural and environmental modification.

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

Many psychoactive medications cannot be used in the face of certain physical illnesses or concurrently with other medications. Some medications may also have side effects, not be effective at the recommended dose or have a paradoxical effect. Furthermore, success is reliant on the owner being able to administer the medication.

AIMS

This article aims to guide practitioners by discussing questions such as how to choose the appropriate medication, how to dose it and how long to use it. The psychoactive medications most commonly used in feline medicine are reviewed, as well as some that are newer or less common.

EVIDENCE BASE

Data for the use of medications in cats is limited, with just a small number of clinical-, species- and problem-directed studies available, and a few more case series and case reports. Where feline-specific research is not available, the authors have drawn upon research published in other species, such as humans, dogs and rats, as well as anecdotal reports and expert opinions.

Defining and Clarifying the Terms Canine Possessive Aggression and Resource Guarding: A Study of Expert Opinion

The terms possessive aggression and resource guarding are often used interchangeably to describe behavior patterns used by a dog to control primary access to a perceived valuable item. The use of inconsistent terminology may impact the effectiveness of communication between dog owners and clinicians, affect treatment and management success for the behavior, and inhibit research progress. The aim of this study was to explore the opinions of canine behavior experts on the meaning of and preference for the terms possessive aggression and resource guarding, as well as to develop and propose an operational ethological definition for the preferential term identified. Eighty-five individuals met the inclusion criteria and were invited to participate in a two-stage online survey. Results from the two-stage survey found that the majority of participants preferred the term resource guarding. Detailed exploration of meaning and definitions required in-depth discussion beyond traditional survey methods, therefore, respondents from the second stage of the survey were invited to participate in an online discussion board. Following content analysis of the data from the discussion board, we conclude that the majority of participants preferred the term resource guarding. Considering 100% consensus was not reached regarding terminology among experts in the field, future authors and clinicians should provide clear definitions where terms are applied to ensure effective communication between all parties and to ensure consistency in canine behavior research. Based on expert contributions, we define resource guarding as “the use of avoidance, threatening, or aggressive behaviors by a dog to retain control of food or non-food items in the presence of a person or other animal.”

Endogenous Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Aggression in Domestic Dogs

Aggressive behavior in dogs poses public health and animal welfare concerns, however the biological mechanisms regulating dog aggression are not well understood. We investigated the relationships between endogenous plasma oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVP)-neuropeptides that have been linked to affiliative and aggressive behavior in other mammalian species-and aggression in domestic dogs. We first validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for the measurement of free (unbound) and total (free + bound) OT and AVP in dog plasma. In Experiment 1 we evaluated behavioral and neuroendocrine differences between a population of pet dogs with a history of chronic aggression toward conspecifics and a matched control group. Dogs with a history of aggression exhibited more aggressive behavior during simulated encounters with conspecifics, and had lower free, but higher total plasma AVP than matched controls, but there were no group differences for OT. In Experiment 2 we compared OT and AVP concentrations between pet dogs and a population of assistance dogs that have been bred for affiliative and non-aggressive temperaments, and investigated neuroendocrine predictors of individual differences in social behavior within the assistance dog population. Compared to pet dogs, assistance dogs had higher free and total OT, but there were no differences in either measure for AVP. Within the assistance dog population, dogs who behaved more aggressively toward a threatening stranger had higher total AVP than dogs who did not. Collectively these data suggest that endogenous OT and AVP may play critical roles in shaping dog social behavior, including aspects of both affiliation and aggression.

Factors associated with canine resource guarding behaviour in the presence of dogs: A cross-sectional survey of dog owners

Resource guarding (RG) involves the use of specific behaviour patterns to control access to an item of potential "value" (as perceived by the dog), and can be expressed in the presence of various animals, including other dogs. The current study aimed to identify factors associated with RG patterns expressed around other dogs. Dog owners (n=3068) were recruited through social media to answer questions regarding dog- and household-related factors, as well as their dog's current and past behaviour around resources in the presence of other dogs. Participants were screened for their ability to identify different forms of resource guarding from video, and were removed from the study if they incorrectly identified any of the videos provided. This resulted in a final sample of 2207 participants (n=3589 dogs). Multiple multi-level logistic regression models were developed to determine the association between independent variables of interest and RG patterns (i.e., RG aggression, avoidance, and rapid ingestion) when in the presence of other dogs. Namely, dogs living in multi-dog households were more likely to display RG aggression, avoidance, and rapid ingestion (p<0.01) compared to dogs that live without other dogs. Dogs with higher levels of impulsivity and fear were more likely to display RG aggression (p<0.001). Neutered males (p<0.01) were more likely to be RG aggressive compared to dogs of other sexes and neuter statuses. Teaching dogs to reliably "drop" items when requested was associated with a reduced likelihood of biting RG aggression (p<0.05). Distinct associative relationships between the patterns of RG in the presence of other dogs were identified. Dogs that express RG aggression were less likely to express RG avoidance or RG rapid ingestion; however, the latter two types were likely to co-occur, perhaps dependent on the type of resource involved. This suggests that dogs may be relatively more fixed in their action around items in the presence of dogs. However, a longitudinal study is important to determine the exact nature of relationships between RG patterns. The results identified in this study can be used as a basis for further investigation on factors influencing RG behaviour in the presence of other dogs.

Factors associated with canine resource guarding behaviour in the presence of people: A cross-sectional survey of dog owners

Resource guarding (RG) involves the use of specific behaviour patterns to control access to an item of potential "value" to the dog. Of particular concern are patterns involving aggression, due to safety concerns, but other patterns of RG behaviour are prevalent and include avoidance (i.e., positioning of the head or body to maintain item control, or location change with the item) and rapid ingestion (i.e., rapid ingestion of a consumable item). Current research has not investigated the etiology of RG aggression in depth, nor have the additional patterns of resource guarding been considered. Dog owners (n=3068) were recruited through social media to answer questions regarding dog- and household-related factors, as well as their dog's current and past behaviour around resources in the presence of people. Participants were screened for their ability to identify different forms of resource guarding from video, and were removed from the study if they incorrectly identified any of the videos provided. This resulted in a final sample of 2207 participants representing information for 3589 dogs. Multiple multi-level logistic regression models were developed to determine the association between independent variables of interest and each pattern of resource guarding. Dogs with higher levels of impulsivity were more likely to display avoidance, rapid ingestion and aggressive RG (p<0.001), and dogs with higher levels of fearfulness were also more likely to display RG aggression (p<0.001). Neutered males (p<0.01) and mixed breeds (p<0.05) were more likely to be RG aggressive compared to dogs of other sexes, neuter statuses, and breeds. Teaching dogs to reliably "drop" items when requested was associated with a reduced likelihood of RG aggression (p<0.01) and avoidance (p<0.001). Furthermore, the addition of palatable bits of food during mealtime was associated with an increased likelihood of less severe RG behaviour (p<0.01), whereas removal of the food dish during mealtime was associated with an increased likelihood of expressing more severe or frequent RG behaviours (p<0.05). Relationships between the three types of RG patterns were varied, suggesting that RG behaviour patterns are flexible when humans are involved. The results highlight various factors that might predispose dogs to RG behaviour and potential methods for prevention of RG aggression, and can serve as a basis for future longitudinal RG research to establish causation.

Inter-dog aggression in a UK owner survey: prevalence, co-occurrence in different contexts and risk factors

Aggression between dogs is common and can result in injury. The aims of this study were to estimate prevalence, evaluate co-occurrence with human-directed aggression, and investigate potential risk factors, using a cross-sectional convenience sample of dog owners. Aggression (barking, lunging, growling or biting) towards unfamiliar dogs was reported to currently occur, by 22 per cent of owners, and towards other dogs in the household, by 8 per cent. A low level of concordance between dog and human-directed aggression suggested most dogs were not showing aggression in multiple contexts. Aggression towards other dogs in the household was associated with increasing dog age, use of positive punishment/negative reinforcement training techniques, and attending ring-craft classes. Aggression towards other dogs on walks was associated with location of questionnaire distribution, owner age, age of dog, origin of dog, dog breed type, use of positive punishment/negative reinforcement training techniques and attending obedience classes for more than four weeks. In both, the amount of variance explained by models was low (<15 per cent), suggesting that unmeasured factors mostly accounted for differences between groups. These results suggest general characteristics of dogs and owners which contribute to intraspecific aggression, but also highlight that these are relatively minor predictors.

Comparison of early socialization practices used for litters of small-scale registered dog breeders and nonregistered dog breeders

OBJECTIVE-To compare early socialization practices between litters of breeders registered with the Canine Control Council (CCC) and litters of nonregistered breeders advertising puppies for sale in a local newspaper. DESIGN-Retrospective cohort study. Animals-80 litters of purebred and mixed-breed dogs from registered (n = 40) and non-registered (40) breeders. PROCEDURES-Registered breeders were randomly selected from the CCC website, and nonregistered breeders were randomly selected from a weekly advertising newspaper. The litter sold most recently by each breeder was then enrolled in the study. Information pertaining to socialization practices for each litter was obtained through a questionnaire administered over the telephone. RESULTS-Registered breeders generally had more breeding bitches and had more litters than did nonregistered breeders. Litters of registered breeders were more likely to have been socialized with adult dogs, people of different appearances, and various environmental stimuli, compared with litters of nonregistered breeders. Litters from registered breeders were also much less likely to have been the result of an unplanned pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE-Among those breeders represented, litters of registered breeders received more socialization experience, compared with litters of nonregistered breeders. People purchasing puppies from nonregistered breeders should focus on socializing their puppies between the time of purchase and 14 weeks of age. Additional research is required to determine whether puppies from nonregistered breeders are at increased risk of behavioral problems and are therefore more likely to be relinquished to animal shelters or euthanized, relative to puppies from registered breeders.

Effects of exercise and human contact on animal welfare in a dog shelter

The aim of the study is to investigate the reduction of stress in dogs in municipal shelters through easy-to-implement activities, ie, 25-minute sessions of exercise and human contact, that do not require a significant investment in terms of funding, staff or time. The results demonstrate that the dogs taking part in these sessions have lower salivary cortisol levels (F=121.42; P<0.05) and achieve better scores on a behaviour test (t(17)=4.27; P=0.001). It can therefore be affirmed that the exercise and human contact protocol proposed in the present study diminishes stress and improves the welfare of dogs housed in shelters.