TL1A increased the differentiation of peripheral Th17 in rheumatoid arthritis

TL1A, a novel alarmin in airway, intestinal, and autoimmune disorders

The term alarmin denotes a broad class of molecules rapidly released to alert the immune system through the engagement of specific receptors on immune cells. Three alarmin cytokines-thymic stromal lymphopoietin, IL-33, and IL-25-are released from epithelial and certain stromal cells. TNF-like cytokine 1A (TL1A) is a member of the TNF cytokine superfamily, first identified in human endothelial cells. TL1A is now considered a novel alarmin expressed by human and mouse bronchial and intestinal epithelial cells. TL1A exerts its biological activities by binding to a trimeric receptor DR3 (death receptor 3), expressed on a wide spectrum of immune and structural cells, including lung fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and bronchial epithelial cells. TL1A has been implicated in experimental and human inflammatory bowel diseases as well as in airway inflammation and remodeling in severe asthma. A monoclonal antibody anti-TL1A (tulisokibart) is effective in inducing clinical remission in ulcerative colitis patients. Increasing evidence suggests that TL1A is also involved in certain autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis. These emerging findings broaden the role of TL1A in various human inflammatory conditions. Several clinical trials are currently evaluating the safety and efficacy of monoclonal antibodies targeting TL1A in asthma or inflammatory bowel disease patients.

TL1A priming induces a multi-cytokine Th9 cell phenotype that promotes robust allergic inflammation in murine models of asthma

Multi-cytokine-producing Th9 cells secrete IL-9 and type 2 cytokines and mediate mouse and human allergic inflammation. However, the cytokines that promote a multi-cytokine secreting phenotype have not been defined. Tumor necrosis factor superfamily member TL1A signals through its receptor DR3 to increase IL-9. Here we demonstrate that TL1A increases expression of IL-9 and IL-13 co-expressing cells in murine Th9 cell cultures, inducing a multi-cytokine phenotype. Mechanistically, this is linked to histone modifications allowing for increased accessibility at the Il9 and Il13 loci. We further show that TL1A alters the transcription factor network underlying expression of IL-9 and IL-13 in Th9 cells and increases binding of transcription factors to Il9 and Il13 loci. TL1A-priming enhances the pathogenicity of Th9 cells in murine models of allergic airway disease through the increased expression of IL-9 and IL-13. Lastly, in both chronic and memory-recall models of allergic airway disease, blockade of TL1A signaling decreases the multi-cytokine Th9 cell population and attenuates the allergic phenotype. Taken together, these data demonstrate that TL1A promotes the development of multi-cytokine Th9 cells that drive allergic airway diseases and that targeting pathogenic T helper cell-promoting cytokines could be an effective approach for modifying disease.

TL1A inhibition for inflammatory bowel disease treatment: From inflammation to fibrosis

The pivotal role of TL1A in modulating immune pathways crucial for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and intestinal fibrosis offers a promising therapeutic target. Phase 2 trials (TUSCANY and ARTEMIS-UC) evaluating an anti-TL1A antibody show progress in expanding IBD therapeutic options. First-in-human data reveal reduced expression of genes associated with extracellular matrix remodeling and fibrosis post-anti-TL1A treatment. Investigational drug TEV-48574, potentially exerting dual antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects, is undergoing a phase 2 basket study in both ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn disease (CD). Results are eagerly awaited, marking advancements in IBD therapeutics. This critical review comprehensively examines the existing literature, illuminating TL1A and the intricate role of DR3 in IBD, emphasizing the evolving therapeutic landscape and ongoing clinical trials, with potential implications for more effective IBD management.

Role of TL1A in Inflammatory Autoimmune Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

TL1A, also called TNFSF15, is a member of tumor necrosis factor family. It is expressed in different immune cell, such as monocyte, macrophage, dendritic cell, T cell and non-immune cell, for example, synovial fibroblast, endothelial cell. TL1A competitively binds to death receptor 3 or decoy receptor 3, providing stimulatory signal for downstream signaling pathways, and then regulates proliferation, activation, apoptosis of and cytokine, chemokine production in effector cells. Recent findings showed that TL1A was abnormally expressed in autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, primary biliary cirrhosis, systemic lupus erythematosus and ankylosing spondylitis. In vivo and in vitro studies further demonstrated that TL1A was involved in development and pathogenesis of these diseases. In this study, we comprehensively discussed the complex immunological function of TL1A and focused on recent findings of the pleiotropic activity conducted by TL1A in inflammatory autoimmune disease. Finish of the study will provide new ideas for developing therapeutic strategies for these diseases by targeting TL1A.

Analysis of therapeutic potential of preclinical models based on DR3/TL1A pathway modulation (Review)

Death receptor 3 (DR3) and its corresponding ligand, tumor necrosis factor-like ligand 1A (TL1A), belong to the tumor necrosis factor superfamily. Signaling via this receptor-ligand pair results in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects. Effector lymphocytes can be activated to exert pro-inflammatory activity by triggering the DR3/TL1A pathway. By contrast, DR3/TL1A signaling also induces expansion of the suppressive function of regulatory T cells, which serve an important role in exerting anti-inflammatory functions and maintaining immune homeostasis. Preclinical evidence indicates that neutralizing and agonistic antibodies, as well as ligand-based approaches targeting the DR3/TL1A pathway, may be used to treat diseases, including inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases. Accumulating evidence has suggested that modulating the DR3/TL1A pathway is a promising therapeutic approach for patients with these diseases. This review discusses preclinical models to gauge the progress of therapeutic strategies for diseases involving the DR3/TL1A pathway to aid in drug development.

Oestrogen-deficiency induces bone loss by modulating CD14+ monocyte and CD4+ T cell DR3 expression and serum TL1A levels

Background

Oestrogen-deficiency induced by menopause is associated with reduced bone density and primary osteoporosis, resulting in an increased risk of fracture. While the exact etiology of menopause-induced primary osteoporotic bone loss is not fully known, members of the tumour necrosis factor super family (TNFSF) are known to play a role. Recent studies have revealed that the TNFSF members death receptor 3 (DR3) and one of its ligands, TNF-like protein 1A (TL1A) have a key role in secondary osteoporosis; enhancing CD14⁺ peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) osteoclast formation and bone resorption. Whether DR3 and TL1A contribute towards bone loss in menopause-induced primary osteoporosis however, remains unknown.

Methods

To investigate this we performed flow cytometry analysis of DR3 expression on CD14⁺ PBMCs isolated from pre- and early post-menopausal females and late post-menopausal osteoporotic patients. Serum levels of TL1A, CCL3 and total MMP-9 were measured by ELISA. In vitro osteoclast differentiation assays were performed to determine CD14⁺ monocyte osteoclastogenic potential. In addition, splenic CD4⁺ T cell DR3 expression was investigated 1 week and 8 weeks post-surgery, using the murine ovariectomy model.

Results

In contrast to pre-menopausal females, CD14⁺ monocytes isolated from post-menopausal females were unable to induce DR3 expression. Serum TL1A levels were decreased approx. 2-fold in early post-menopausal females compared to pre-menopausal controls and post-menopausal osteoporotic females; no difference was observed between pre-menopausal and late post-menopausal osteoporotic females. Analysis of in vitro CD14⁺ monocyte osteoclastogenic potential revealed no significant difference between the post-menopausal and post-menopausal osteoporotic cohorts. Interestingly, in the murine ovariectomy model splenic CD4⁺ T cell DR3 expression was significantly increased at 1 week but not 8 weeks post-surgery when compared to the sham control.

Conclusion

Our results reveals for the first time that loss of oestrogen has a significant effect on DR3; decreasing expression on CD14⁺ monocytes and increasing expression on CD4⁺ T cells. These data suggest that while oestrogen-deficiency induced changes in DR3 expression do not affect late post-menopausal bone loss they could potentially have an indirect role in early menopausal bone loss through the modulation of T cell activity.

Association between TL1A gene polymorphisms and systemic lupus erythematosus in a Chinese Han population

Our previous studies showed elevated tumor necrosis factor-like ligand 1 aberrance (TL1A) expression in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, TL1A polymorphisms with SLE susceptibility remain to be elucidated. In addition, we made meta-analysis to evaluate the relationship of TL1A polymorphisms and autoimmune diseases owing to inconsistent results. The present research was carried out by 404 SLE, 150 primary Sjogren's syndrome (pSS) patients, and 574 healthy individuals. Three TL1A polymorphisms (rs3810936, rs6478109, rs7848647) were genotyped using TaqMan genotyping assay. Then, the meta-analysis was performed by collecting the present case-control study and previously published research. Results showed that genotypes of rs3810936, rs7848647 were different between SLE patients and healthy controls, whereas no significant association was observed in the three polymorphisms and pSS patients. Genotypes distribution of rs6478109, rs7848647 were strongly related to lupus nephritis within SLE (p = 0.004, p = 0.011), respectively. Moreover, combined meta-analysis consisted of ten comparative research involving 4,305 patients and 5,600 controls. An association between autoimmune diseases and rs6478109 polymorphism was found. Our findings indicate that gene polymorphisms (rs3810936, rs7848647) of TL1A might correlate with lupus.

Death-Domain-Receptor 3 Deletion Normalizes Inflammatory Gene Expression and Prevents Ileitis in Experimental Crohn's Disease

Background

TNF-like cytokine 1A (TL1A) and its functional receptor, death-domain-receptor-3 (DR3), are multifunctional mediators of effector and regulatory immunity. We aimed to evaluate the functional role and therapeutic potential of TL1A/DR3 signaling in Crohn's disease-like ileitis.

Methods

Ileitis-prone SAMP1/YitFc (SAMP) and TNFΔARE/+ mice were rendered deficient for DR3 or TL1A by microsatellite marker-assisted backcrossing. Pathological and immunological characteristics were compared between control and knockout mice, and mucosal immunophenotype was analyzed by Nanostring microarray assay. The therapeutic effect of pharmacological TL1A neutralization was also investigated.

Results

DR3 deficiency was associated with restoration of a homeostatic mucosal immunostat in SAMP mice through the regulation of several pro- and anti-inflammatory genes. This led to suppression of effector immunity, amelioration of ileitis severity, and compromised ability of either unfractionated CD4+ or CD4+CD45RBhi mucosal lymphocytes to transfer ileitis to severe combined immunodeficient mice recipients. TNF-driven ileitis was also prevented in TNFΔARE/+xDR3-/- mice, in association with decreased expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF and IFN-γ. In contrast to DR3, TL1A was dispensable for the development of ileitis although it affected the kinetics of inflammation, as TNFΔARE/+xTL1A-/- demonstrated delayed onset of inflammation, whereas administration of a neutralizing, anti-TL1A antibody ameliorated early but not late TNFΔARE/+ ileitis.

Conclusion

We found a prominent pro-inflammatory role of DR3 in chronic ileitis, which is only partially mediated via interaction with TL1A, raising the possibility for additional DR3 ligands. Death-domain-receptor-3 appears to be a master regulator of mucosal homeostasis and inflammation and may represent a candidate therapeutic target for chronic inflammatory conditions of the bowel.

NFKB1 and MANBA Confer Disease Susceptibility to Primary Biliary Cholangitis via Independent Putative Primary Functional Variants

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic and cholestatic liver disease that eventually leads to cirrhosis and hepatic failure. We recently identified several susceptibility genes included NFKB1 and MANBA for PBC in the Japanese population by genome-wide association study. However, the primary functional variants in the NFKB1/MANBA region and the molecular mechanism for conferring disease susceptibility to PBC have not yet been clarified.

METHODS

We performed high-density association mapping based on a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) imputation analysis, using data from a whole-genome sequence reference panel of 1070 Japanese individuals and the previous genome-wide association study (1389 PBC patients, 1508 healthy controls). Among SNPs (P < 5.0 × 10^-7) in the NFKB1/MANBA region, putative primary functional variants and the molecular mechanism for conferring disease susceptibility to PBC were identified by in silico/in vitro functional analysis.

RESULTS

Among the SNPs in the NFKB1/MANBA region, rs17032850 and rs227361, which changed the binding of transcription factors lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1 (LEF-1) and retinoid X receptor α (RXRα), respectively, were identified as putative primary functional variants that regulate gene expression. In addition, expression-quantitative trait locus data and gene editing using a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas9 system supported the potential role of rs17032850 and rs227361 in regulating NFKB1 and MANBA expression, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified independent putative primary functional variants in NFKB1/MANBA and showed the distinct molecular mechanism by which each putative primary functional variant conferred susceptibility to PBC. Our approach was useful to dissect the pathogenesis not only of PBC, but also other digestive diseases in which NFKB1/MANBA has been reported as a susceptibility locus.

CCL3 and MMP-9 are induced by TL1A during death receptor 3 (TNFRSF25)-dependent osteoclast function and systemic bone loss

Reduced bone density and secondary osteoporosis, resulting in increased risk of fracture, is a significant complicating factor in the inflammatory arthritides. While the exact etiology of systemic bone loss is not fully elucidated, recent insights into the tumor necrosis factor super family (TNFSF) revealed a potential role for death receptor 3 (DR3/TNFRSF25) and one of its ligands, TNF-like protein 1A (TL1A/TNFSF15). The mechanisms by which DR3/TL1A signalling modulates bone loss are unclear. We investigated the effect of DR3/TL1A signalling upon osteoclast-dependent chemokine and MMP production to unravel novel mechanisms whereby this pathway regulates OC formation and OC-dependent bone resorption. Collagen induced arthritis (CIA) was established in DR3^wt and DR3^ko mice, joints were sectioned and analysed histologically for bone damage while systemic trabecular bone loss distal to the affected joints was compared by micro-CT. Ablation of DR3 protected DBA/1 mice against the development and progression of CIA. In DR3^ko, joints of the ankle and mid-foot were almost free of bone erosions and long bones of mice with CIA were protected against systemic trabecular bone loss. In vitro, expression of DR3 was confirmed on primary human CD14⁺ osteoclast precursors by flow cytometry. These cells were treated with TL1A in osteoclast differentiation medium and TRAP⁺ osteoclasts, bone resorption, levels of osteoclast-associated chemokines (CCL3, CCL2 and CXCL8) and MMP-9 measured. TL1A intensified human osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption and increased osteoclast-associated production of CCL3 and MMP-9. Our data reveals the DR3 pathway as an attractive therapeutic target to combat adverse bone pathology associated with inflammatory arthritis. We demonstrate that DR3 is critical in the pathogenesis of murine CIA and associated secondary osteoporosis. Furthermore, we identify a novel mechanism by which the DR3/TL1A pathway directly enhances human OC formation and resorptive activity, controlling expression and activation of CCL3 and MMP-9.

The TNF family member TL1A induces IL-22 secretion in committed human Th17 cells via IL-9 induction

TL1A contributes to the pathogenesis of several chronic inflammatory diseases, including those of the bowel by enhancing TH1, TH17, and TH2 responses. TL1A mediates a strong costimulation of these TH subsets, particularly of mucosal CCR9+ T cells. However, the signaling pathways that TL1A induces in different TH subsets are incompletely understood. We investigated the function of TL1A on human TH17 cells. TL1A, together with TGF-β, IL-6, and IL-23, enhanced the secretion of IL-17 and IFN-γ from human CD4+ memory T cells. TL1A induced expression of the transcription factors BATF and T-bet that correlated with the secretion of IL-17 and IFN-γ. In contrast, TL1A alone induced high levels of IL-22 in memory CD4+ T cells and committed TH17 cells. However, TL1A did not enhance expression of IL-17A in TH17 cells. Expression of the transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which regulates the expression of IL-22 was not affected by TL1A. Transcriptome analysis of TH17 cells revealed increased expression of IL-9 in response to TL1A. Blocking IL-9 receptor antibodies abrogated TL1A-induced IL-22 secretion. Furthermore, TL1A increased IL-9 production by peripheral TH17 cells isolated from patients with Crohn's disease. These data suggest that TL1A differentially induces expression of TH17 effector cytokines IL-17, -9, and -22 and provides a potential target for therapeutic intervention in TH17-driven chronic inflammatory diseases.

TL1A increased IL-6 production on fibroblast-like synoviocytes by preferentially activating TNF receptor 2 in rheumatoid arthritis

TNF-like protein 1A (TL1A), a member of tumor necrosis factor family, recognized as a ligand of death receptor 3 (DR3) and decoy receptor 3 (DcR3). The interaction of TL1A and DR3 may participate in the pathogenesis of some autoimmune diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Our previous results showed that high concentrations of TL1A could be found in synovial and serum in RA patients, and it was correlated with disease severity. In addition, TL1A could promote Th17 differentiation induced by TGF-β and IL-6 and increased the production of IL-17A. In the present study, we found that TL1A could promote the expression of IL-6 on fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) of RA patients via NF-κB and JNK signaling pathway. TL1A-stimulated FLS increased the percentage of Th17 of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in RA via the production of IL-6, a critical cytokine involved in the differentiation of Th17. Moreover, the blocking of tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) decreased TL1A-stimulated IL-6 production by RA FLS. Our results suggest that TL1A was capable of acting on RA FLS to elevate IL-6 expression, which promoted the production of Th17. More importantly, we showed that TL1A could influence RA FLS through binding to TNFR2 rather than DR3 on FLS, which indicated that the treatment of TNF inhibitors not only blocked the TNF but also suppressed the TL1A in RA patients.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-like Cytokine TL1A and Its Receptors DR3 and DcR3: Important New Factors in Mucosal Homeostasis and Inflammation

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-like cytokine 1A (TL1A) is a member of the TNF superfamily of proteins (TNFSF15), which signals through association with death domain receptor 3 (DR3). Decoy receptor 3 (DcR3) competes with DR3 for TL1A binding and inhibits functional signaling. These proteins are significantly upregulated in inflamed intestinal tissues, and their pathogenetic importance for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is suggested by accumulating evidence. TL1A/DR3 induce costimulatory signals to activated lymphocytes, including the gut-specific populations of CD4+CD161+ and CD4+CCR9+ cells, affecting all major effector pathways and inducing the mucosal upregulation of Th1, Th2, and Th17 factors. They may also participate in mucosal homeostasis and defense against pathogens through their effects on the development and function of the recently described innate lymphoid cells. T-regulatory lymphocytes highly express DR3, and they respond to TL1A stimulation also. Mechanistic studies by transgenic expression of TL1A, deletion of TL1A or DR3, and therapeutic blockade by anti-TL1A antibodies all support the critical involvement of the corresponding pathways in the pathogenesis of chronic mucosal inflammation. Wide genome association studies have identified IBD-specific polymorphisms in TNFSF15 gene, which have functional implications and serve as poor prognostic factors. Recently, TL1A blockade in mice was presented as a unique pharmacological treatment for the reversal of established intestinal fibrosis. Finally, TL1A/DR3 signaling seems to critically participate in extraintestinal inflammatory conditions that are frequently associated with IBD as part of the gut-joint-skin-eye axis. These converging lines of evidence make TL1A/DR3 a suitable model for personalized approaches to IBD therapy.

Human primary biliary cirrhosis-susceptible allele of rs4979462 enhances TNFSF15 expression by binding NF-1

A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified tumor necrosis factor superfamily member 15 (TNFSF15) as the strongest associated gene with susceptibility to primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) outside the HLA loci in the Japanese population. However, causal functional variants of the TNFSF15 locus and the molecular mechanism underlying disease susceptibility have not been clarified. Here, to identify the functional causal variants of the TNFSF15 locus, integrated analysis comprising in silico analysis, a case-control association study and in vitro functional analysis was performed. Initially, 32 functional candidate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the expression regulatory motifs, the coding region, or the untranslated regions (UTRs) of the TNFSF15 locus were selected by in silico analysis. By the case-control association studies using PBC patients (n = 1279) and healthy controls (n = 1091) in the Japanese population, rs4979462 [P = 1.85 × 10(-14) (our previous study)], rs56211063 (P = 2.21 × 10(-14)), and rs55768522 (r(2) = 1 with rs4979462) were likely candidates for causal variants. Among these SNPs, rs4979462 was identified as the causal variant by in vitro functional analysis using luciferase assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Super-shift assay clarified that PBC-susceptible allele of rs4979462 generated a novel NF-1 binding site. Moreover, higher endogenous TNFSF15 protein and mRNA expression levels were observed in individuals with the PBC-susceptible allele of rs4979462. This study identified the causal variant for PBC susceptibility in the TNFSF15 locus and clarified its underlying molecular mechanism. TNFSF15 and NF-1 are considered to be potential targets for the treatment of PBC.

The TL1A/DR3/DcR3 pathway in autoimmune rheumatic diseases

IMPORTANCE

TNF-like cytokine 1A (TL1A) and its receptors, death receptor 3 (DR3) and decoy receptor 3 (DcR3) are members of the TNF and TNF receptor superfamilies of proteins, respectively. They constitute a cytokine system that actively interferes with the regulation of immune responses and may participate in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases.

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to present the current knowledge on the role of the TL1A/DR3/DcR3 system in the pathophysiology of autoimmune rheumatic diseases, with a focus on rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

An extensive literature search was performed in the PubMed database using the following keywords: TL1A, death receptor 3, DR3, decoy receptor 3, DcR3, TNFSF15, TNFRSF25, and TNFSF6B. Studies were assessed and selected in view of their relevance to autoimmune rheumatic diseases.

CONCLUSION

The TL1A/DR3/DcR3 axis is a novel immune pathway that participates in the pathogenesis of a variety of autoimmune rheumatic diseases. These molecules may be promising therapeutic targets for inflammatory arthritis.