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Palser ER, Veziris CR, Morris NA, Roy ARK, Watson-Pereira C, Holley SR, Miller BL, Gorno-Tempini ML, Sturm VE. Elevated unanticipated acoustic startle reactivity in dyslexia. DYSLEXIA (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2024; 30:e1779. [PMID: 38979661 PMCID: PMC11257413 DOI: 10.1002/dys.1779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
People with dyslexia, a neurodevelopmental disorder of reading, are highly attuned to the emotional world. Compared with their typically developing peers, children with dyslexia exhibit greater autonomic nervous system reactivity and facial behaviour to emotion- and empathy-inducing film clips. Affective symptoms, such as anxiety, are also more common in children with dyslexia than in those without. Here, we investigated whether the startle response, an automatic reaction that lies at the interface of emotion and reflex, is elevated in dyslexia. We measured facial behaviour, electrodermal reactivity (a sympathetic nervous system measure) and emotional experience in response to a 100 ms, 105 dB unanticipated acoustic startle task in 30 children with dyslexia and 20 comparison children without dyslexia (aged 7-13) who were matched on age, sex and nonverbal reasoning. Our results indicated that the children with dyslexia had greater total facial behaviour and electrodermal reactivity to the acoustic startle task than the children without dyslexia. Across the sample, greater electrodermal reactivity during the startle predicted greater parent-reported anxiety symptoms. These findings contribute to an emerging picture of heightened emotional reactivity in dyslexia and suggest accentuated sympathetic nervous system reactivity may contribute to the elevated anxiety that is often seen in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor R. Palser
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Christina R. Veziris
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Nathaniel A. Morris
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Ashlin R. K. Roy
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Christa Watson-Pereira
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Sarah R. Holley
- Psychology Department, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94131, USA
| | - Bruce L. Miller
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Maria Luisa Gorno-Tempini
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94131, USA
| | - Virginia E. Sturm
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94131, USA
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2
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Roark CL, Thakkar V, Chandrasekaran B, Centanni TM. Auditory Category Learning in Children With Dyslexia. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2024; 67:974-988. [PMID: 38354099 PMCID: PMC11001431 DOI: 10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Developmental dyslexia is proposed to involve selective procedural memory deficits with intact declarative memory. Recent research in the domain of category learning has demonstrated that adults with dyslexia have selective deficits in Information-Integration (II) category learning that is proposed to rely on procedural learning mechanisms and unaffected Rule-Based (RB) category learning that is proposed to rely on declarative, hypothesis testing mechanisms. Importantly, learning mechanisms also change across development, with distinct developmental trajectories in both procedural and declarative learning mechanisms. It is unclear how dyslexia in childhood should influence auditory category learning, a critical skill for speech perception and reading development. METHOD We examined auditory category learning performance and strategies in 7- to 12-year-old children with dyslexia (n = 25; nine females, 16 males) and typically developing controls (n = 25; 13 females, 12 males). Participants learned nonspeech auditory categories of spectrotemporal ripples that could be optimally learned with either RB selective attention to the temporal modulation dimension or procedural integration of information across spectral and temporal dimensions. We statistically compared performance using mixed-model analyses of variance and identified strategies using decision-bound computational models. RESULTS We found that children with dyslexia have an apparent selective RB category learning deficit, rather than a selective II learning deficit observed in prior work in adults with dyslexia. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the important skill of auditory category learning is impacted in children with dyslexia and throughout development, individuals with dyslexia may develop compensatory strategies that preserve declarative learning while developing difficulties in procedural learning. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25148519.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey L. Roark
- Department of Communication Science and Disorders, University of Pittsburgh, PA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University, PA
| | - Vishal Thakkar
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth
| | - Bharath Chandrasekaran
- Department of Communication Science and Disorders, University of Pittsburgh, PA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University, PA
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3
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Ribas-Prats T, Cordero G, Lip-Sosa DL, Arenillas-Alcón S, Costa-Faidella J, Gómez-Roig MD, Escera C. Developmental Trajectory of the Frequency-Following Response During the First 6 Months of Life. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2023; 66:4785-4800. [PMID: 37944057 DOI: 10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of the present study is to characterize the maturational changes during the first 6 months of life in the neural encoding of two speech sound features relevant for early language acquisition: the stimulus fundamental frequency (fo), related to stimulus pitch, and the vowel formant composition, particularly F1. The frequency-following response (FFR) was used as a snapshot into the neural encoding of these two stimulus attributes. METHOD FFRs to a consonant-vowel stimulus /da/ were retrieved from electroencephalographic recordings in a sample of 80 healthy infants (45 at birth and 35 at the age of 1 month). Thirty-two infants (16 recorded at birth and 16 recorded at 1 month) returned for a second recording at 6 months of age. RESULTS Stimulus fo and F1 encoding showed improvements from birth to 6 months of age. Most remarkably, a significant improvement in the F1 neural encoding was observed during the first month of life. CONCLUSION Our results highlight the rapid and sustained maturation of the basic neural machinery necessary for the phoneme discrimination ability during the first 6 months of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Ribas-Prats
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gaël Cordero
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Diana Lucia Lip-Sosa
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
- BCNatal - Barcelona Center for Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine (Hospital Sant Joan de Déu and Hospital Clínic), University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sonia Arenillas-Alcón
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Costa-Faidella
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Dolores Gómez-Roig
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
- BCNatal - Barcelona Center for Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine (Hospital Sant Joan de Déu and Hospital Clínic), University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carles Escera
- Brainlab - Cognitive Neuroscience Research Group, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
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4
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Zhao J, Yang Q, Cheng C, Wang Z. Cumulative genetic score of KIAA0319 affects reading ability in Chinese children: moderation by parental education and mediation by rapid automatized naming. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS : BBF 2023; 19:10. [PMID: 37259151 DOI: 10.1186/s12993-023-00212-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
KIAA0319, a well-studied candidate gene, has been shown to be associated with reading ability and developmental dyslexia. In the present study, we investigated whether KIAA0319 affects reading ability by interacting with the parental education level and whether rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness and morphological awareness mediate the relationship between KIAA0319 and reading ability. A total of 2284 Chinese children from primary school grades 3 and 6 participated in this study. Chinese character reading accuracy and word reading fluency were used as measures of reading abilities. The cumulative genetic risk score (CGS) of 13 SNPs in KIAA0319 was calculated. Results revealed interaction effect between CGS of KIAA0319 and parental education level on reading fluency. The interaction effect suggested that individuals with a low CGS of KIAA0319 were better at reading fluency in a positive environment (higher parental educational level) than individuals with a high CGS. Moreover, the interaction effect coincided with the differential susceptibility model. The results of the multiple mediator model revealed that RAN mediates the impact of the genetic cumulative effect of KIAA0319 on reading abilities. These findings provide evidence that KIAA0319 is a risk vulnerability gene that interacts with environmental factor to impact reading abilities and demonstrate the reliability of RAN as an endophenotype between genes and reading associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Zhao
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University and Shaanxi Provincial Key Research Center of Child Mental and Behavioral Health, Yanta District, 199 South Chang'an Road, Xi'an, 710062, China.
| | - Qing Yang
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University and Shaanxi Provincial Key Research Center of Child Mental and Behavioral Health, Yanta District, 199 South Chang'an Road, Xi'an, 710062, China
| | - Chen Cheng
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University and Shaanxi Provincial Key Research Center of Child Mental and Behavioral Health, Yanta District, 199 South Chang'an Road, Xi'an, 710062, China
| | - Zhengjun Wang
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University and Shaanxi Provincial Key Research Center of Child Mental and Behavioral Health, Yanta District, 199 South Chang'an Road, Xi'an, 710062, China.
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Auditory brainstem response deficits in learning disorders and developmental language disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20124. [PMID: 36418364 PMCID: PMC9684495 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although learning disorders (LD) and developmental language disorder (DLD) can be linked to overlapping psychological and behavioral deficits, such as phonological, morphological, orthographic, semantic, and syntactic deficits, as well as academic (e.g., reading) difficulties, they are currently separate diagnoses in the DSM-5 with explicit phenotypic differences. At a neural level, it is yet to be determined to what extent they have overlapping or distinct signatures. The identification of such neural markers/endophenotypes could be important for the development of physiological diagnostic tools, as well as an understanding of disorders across different dimensions, as recommended by the Research Domain Criteria Initiative (RDoC). The current systematic review and meta-analysis examined whether the two disorders can be differentiated based on the auditory brainstem response (ABR). Even though both diagnoses require hearing problems to be ruled out, a number of articles have demonstrated associations of these disorders with the auditory brainstem response. We demonstrated that both LD and DLD are associated with longer latencies in ABR Waves III, V, and A, as well as reduced amplitude in Waves V and A. However, multilevel subgroup analyses revealed that LD and DLD do not significantly differ for any of these ABR waves. Results suggest that less efficient early auditory processing is a shared mechanism underlying both LD and DLD.
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6
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Galaburda AM. Animal models of developmental dyslexia. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:981801. [DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.981801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
As some critics have stated, the term “developmental dyslexia” refers to a strictly human disorder, relating to a strictly human capacity – reading – so it cannot be modeled in experimental animals, much less so in lowly rodents. However, two endophenotypes associated with developmental dyslexia are eminently suitable for animal modeling: Cerebral Lateralization, as illustrated by the association between dyslexia and non-righthandedness, and Cerebrocortical Dysfunction, as illustrated by the described abnormal structural anatomy and/or physiology and functional imaging of the dyslexic cerebral cortex. This paper will provide a brief review of these two endophenotypes in human beings with developmental dyslexia and will describe the animal work done in my laboratory and that of others to try to shed light on the etiology of and neural mechanisms underlying developmental dyslexia. Some thought will also be given to future directions of the research.
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Centanni TM, Beach SD, Ozernov-Palchik O, May S, Pantazis D, Gabrieli JDE. Categorical perception and influence of attention on neural consistency in response to speech sounds in adults with dyslexia. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2022; 72:56-78. [PMID: 34495457 PMCID: PMC8901776 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-021-00241-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Developmental dyslexia is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that is associated with alterations in the behavioral and neural processing of speech sounds, but the scope and nature of that association is uncertain. It has been proposed that more variable auditory processing could underlie some of the core deficits in this disorder. In the current study, magnetoencephalography (MEG) data were acquired from adults with and without dyslexia while they passively listened to or actively categorized tokens from a /ba/-/da/ consonant continuum. We observed no significant group difference in active categorical perception of this continuum in either of our two behavioral assessments. During passive listening, adults with dyslexia exhibited neural responses that were as consistent as those of typically reading adults in six cortical regions associated with auditory perception, language, and reading. However, they exhibited significantly less consistency in the left supramarginal gyrus, where greater inconsistency correlated significantly with worse decoding skills in the group with dyslexia. The group difference in the left supramarginal gyrus was evident only when neural data were binned with a high temporal resolution and was only significant during the passive condition. Interestingly, consistency significantly improved in both groups during active categorization versus passive listening. These findings suggest that adults with dyslexia exhibit typical levels of neural consistency in response to speech sounds with the exception of the left supramarginal gyrus and that this consistency increases during active versus passive perception of speech sounds similarly in the two groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Centanni
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA.
| | - S D Beach
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Program in Speech and Hearing Bioscience and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - O Ozernov-Palchik
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - S May
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Boston College, Boston, MA, USA
| | - D Pantazis
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - J D E Gabrieli
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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8
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Siegelman N, van den Bunt MR, Lo JCM, Rueckl JG, Pugh KR. Theory-driven classification of reading difficulties from fMRI data using Bayesian latent-mixture models. Neuroimage 2021; 242:118476. [PMID: 34416399 PMCID: PMC8494078 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have led to several competing theories regarding the neural contributors to impaired reading. But how can we know which theory (or theories) identifies the types of markers that indeed differentiate between individuals with reading disabilities (RD) and their typically developing (TD) peers? To answer this question, we propose a new analytical tool for theory evaluation and comparison, grounded in the Bayesian latent-mixture modeling framework. We start by constructing a series of latent-mixture classification models, each reflecting one existing theoretical claim regarding the neurofunctional markers of RD (highlighting network-level differences in either mean activation, inter-subject heterogeneity, inter-region variability, or connectivity). Then, we run each model on fMRI data alone (i.e., while models are blind to participants' behavioral status), which enables us to interpret the fit between a model's classification of participants and their behavioral (known) RD/TD status as an estimate of its explanatory power. Results from n=127 adolescents and young adults (RD: n=59; TD: n=68) show that models based on network-level differences in mean activation and heterogeneity failed to differentiate between TD and RD individuals. In contrast, classifications based on variability and connectivity were significantly associated with participants' behavioral status. These findings suggest that differences in inter-region variability and connectivity may be better network-level markers of RD than mean activation or heterogeneity (at least in some populations and tasks). More broadly, the results demonstrate the promise of latent-mixture modeling as a theory-driven tool for evaluating different theoretical claims regarding neural contributors to language disorders and other cognitive traits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jay G Rueckl
- Haskins Laboratories, USA; University of Connecticut, USA
| | - Kenneth R Pugh
- Haskins Laboratories, USA; University of Connecticut, USA; Yale University, USA
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Thomas T, Khalaf S, Grigorenko EL. A systematic review and meta-analysis of imaging genetics studies of specific reading disorder. Cogn Neuropsychol 2021; 38:179-204. [PMID: 34529546 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2021.1969900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The imaging genetics of specific reading disabilities (SRD) is an emerging field that aims to characterize the disabilities' neurobiological causes, including atypical brain structure and function and distinct genetic architecture. The present review aimed to summarize current imaging genetics studies of SRD, characterize the effect sizes of reported results by calculating Cohen's d, complete a Fisher's Combined Probability Test for genes featured in multiple studies, and determine areas for future research. Results demonstrate associations between SRD risk genes and reading network brain phenotypes. The Fisher's test revealed promising results for the genes DCDC2, KIAA0319, FOXP2, SLC2A3, and ROBO1. Future research should focus on exploratory approaches to identify previously undiscovered genes. Using comprehensive neuroimaging (e.g., functional and effective connectivity) and genetic (e.g., sequencing and epigenetic) techniques, and using larger samples, diverse stages of development, and longitudinal investigations, would help researchers understand the neurobiological correlates of SRD to improve early identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Thomas
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.,Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Shiva Khalaf
- Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Elena L Grigorenko
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.,Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.,Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
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10
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Unger N, Heim S, Hilger DI, Bludau S, Pieperhoff P, Cichon S, Amunts K, Mühleisen TW. Identification of Phonology-Related Genes and Functional Characterization of Broca's and Wernicke's Regions in Language and Learning Disorders. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:680762. [PMID: 34539327 PMCID: PMC8446646 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.680762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Impaired phonological processing is a leading symptom of multifactorial language and learning disorders suggesting a common biological basis. Here we evaluated studies of dyslexia, dyscalculia, specific language impairment (SLI), and the logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia (lvPPA) seeking for shared risk genes in Broca's and Wernicke's regions, being key for phonological processing within the complex language network. The identified "phonology-related genes" from literature were functionally characterized using Atlas-based expression mapping (JuGEx) and gene set enrichment. Out of 643 publications from the last decade until now, we extracted 21 candidate genes of which 13 overlapped with dyslexia and SLI, six with dyslexia and dyscalculia, and two with dyslexia, dyscalculia, and SLI. No overlap was observed between the childhood disorders and the late-onset lvPPA often showing symptoms of learning disorders earlier in life. Multiple genes were enriched in Gene Ontology terms of the topics learning (CNTNAP2, CYFIP1, DCDC2, DNAAF4, FOXP2) and neuronal development (CCDC136, CNTNAP2, CYFIP1, DCDC2, KIAA0319, RBFOX2, ROBO1). Twelve genes showed above-average expression across both regions indicating moderate-to-high gene activity in the investigated cortical part of the language network. Of these, three genes were differentially expressed suggesting potential regional specializations: ATP2C2 was upregulated in Broca's region, while DNAAF4 and FOXP2 were upregulated in Wernicke's region. ATP2C2 encodes a magnesium-dependent calcium transporter which fits with reports about disturbed calcium and magnesium levels for dyslexia and other communication disorders. DNAAF4 (formerly known as DYX1C1) is involved in neuronal migration supporting the hypothesis of disturbed migration in dyslexia. FOXP2 is a transcription factor that regulates a number of genes involved in development of speech and language. Overall, our interdisciplinary and multi-tiered approach provided evidence that genetic and transcriptional variation of ATP2C2, DNAAF4, and FOXP2 may play a role in physiological and pathological aspects of phonological processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Unger
- Cécile and Oskar Vogt Institute for Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefan Heim
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- JARA-Brain, Jülich-Aachen Research Alliance, Jülich, Germany
| | - Dominique I. Hilger
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Sebastian Bludau
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Peter Pieperhoff
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Sven Cichon
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Pathology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Katrin Amunts
- Cécile and Oskar Vogt Institute for Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- JARA-Brain, Jülich-Aachen Research Alliance, Jülich, Germany
| | - Thomas W. Mühleisen
- Cécile and Oskar Vogt Institute for Brain Research, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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11
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Liebig J, Froehlich E, Sylvester T, Braun M, Heekeren HR, Ziegler JC, Jacobs AM. Neural processing of vision and language in kindergarten is associated with prereading skills and predicts future literacy. Hum Brain Mapp 2021; 42:3517-3533. [PMID: 33942958 PMCID: PMC8249894 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The main objective of this longitudinal study was to investigate the neural predictors of reading acquisition. For this purpose, we followed a sample of 54 children from the end of kindergarten to the end of second grade. Preliterate children were tested for visual symbol (checkerboards, houses, faces, written words) and auditory language processing (spoken words) using a passive functional magnetic resonance imaging paradigm. To examine brain-behavior relationships, we also tested cognitive-linguistic prereading skills at kindergarten age and reading performance of 48 of the same children 2 years later. Face-selective response in the bilateral fusiform gyrus was positively associated with rapid automatized naming (RAN). Response to both spoken and written words at preliterate age was negatively associated with RAN in the dorsal temporo-parietal language system. Longitudinally, neural response to faces in the ventral stream predicted future reading fluency. Here, stronger neural activity in inferior and middle temporal gyri at kindergarten age was associated with higher reading performance. Our results suggest that interindividual differences in the neural system of language and reading affect literacy acquisition and thus might serve as a marker for successful reading acquisition in preliterate children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Liebig
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eva Froehlich
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Teresa Sylvester
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mario Braun
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Universität Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hauke R Heekeren
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Deparment of Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes C Ziegler
- Aix-Marseille Université and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Marseille, France
| | - Arthur M Jacobs
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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12
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Zhang S, Fan H, Zhang Y. The 100 Top-Cited Studies on Dyslexia Research: A Bibliometric Analysis. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:714627. [PMID: 34366943 PMCID: PMC8339432 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.714627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Citation analysis is a type of quantitative and bibliometric analytic method designed to rank papers based on their citation counts. Over the last few decades, the research on dyslexia has made some progress which helps us to assess this disease, but a citation analysis on dyslexia that reflects these advances is lacking. Methods: A retrospective bibliometric analysis was performed using the Web of Science Core Collection database. The 100 top-cited studies on dyslexia were retrieved after reviewing abstracts or full-texts to May 20th, 2021. Data from the 100 top-cited studies were subsequently extracted and analyzed. Results: The 100 top-cited studies on dyslexia were cited between 245 to 1,456 times, with a median citation count of 345. These studies were published in 50 different journals, with the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America" having published the most (n = 10). The studies were published between 1973 and 2012 and the most prolific year in terms of number of publications was 2000. Eleven countries contributed to the 100 top-cited studies, and nearly 75% articles were either from the USA (n = 53) or United Kingdom (n = 21). Eighteen researchers published at least two different studies of the 100 top-cited list as the first author. Furthermore, 71 studies were published as an original research article, 28 studies were review articles, and one study was published as an editorial material. Finally, "Psychology" was the most frequent study category. Conclusions: This analysis provides a better understanding on dyslexia and may help doctors, researchers, and stakeholders to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of classic studies, new discoveries, and trends regarding this research field, thus promoting ideas for future investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Zhang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital/West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hong Fan
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital/West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yonggang Zhang
- Department of Periodical Press and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Chinese Evidence-Based Medicine Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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13
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Grant JG, Siegel LS, D'Angiulli A. From Schools to Scans: A Neuroeducational Approach to Comorbid Math and Reading Disabilities. Front Public Health 2020; 8:469. [PMID: 33194932 PMCID: PMC7642246 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We bridge two analogous concepts of comorbidity, dyslexia-dyscalculia and reading-mathematical disabilities, in neuroscience and education, respectively. We assessed the cognitive profiles of 360 individuals (mean age 25.79 ± 13.65) with disability in reading alone (RD group), mathematics alone (MD group) and both (comorbidity: MDRD group), with tests widely used in both psychoeducational and neuropsychological batteries. As expected, the MDRD group exhibited reading deficits like those shown by the RD group. The former group also exhibited deficits in quantitative reasoning like those shown by the MD group. However, other deficits related to verbal working memory and semantic memory were exclusive to the MDRD group. These findings were independent of gender, age, or socioeconomic and demographic factors. Through a systematic exhaustive review of clinical neuroimaging literature, we mapped the resulting cognitive profiles to correspondingly plausible neuroanatomical substrates of dyslexia and dyscalculia. In our resulting "probing" model, the complex set of domain-specific and domain-general impairments shown in the comorbidity of reading and mathematical disabilities are hypothesized as being related to atypical development of the left angular gyrus. The present neuroeducational approach bridges a long-standing transdisciplinary divide and contributes a step further toward improved early prediction, teaching and interventions for children and adults with combined reading and math disabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy G Grant
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Linda S Siegel
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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14
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Parker A, Slack C, Skoe E. Comparisons of Auditory Brainstem Responses Between a Laboratory and Simulated Home Environment. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2020; 63:3877-3892. [PMID: 33108246 DOI: 10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Miniaturization of digital technologies has created new opportunities for remote health care and neuroscientific fieldwork. The current study assesses comparisons between in-home auditory brainstem response (ABR) recordings and recordings obtained in a traditional lab setting. Method Click-evoked and speech-evoked ABRs were recorded in 12 normal-hearing, young adult participants over three test sessions in (a) a shielded sound booth within a research lab, (b) a simulated home environment, and (c) the research lab once more. The same single-family house was used for all home testing. Results Analyses of ABR latencies, a common clinical metric, showed high repeatability between the home and lab environments across both the click-evoked and speech-evoked ABRs. Like ABR latencies, response consistency and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) were robust both in the lab and in the home and did not show significant differences between locations, although variability between the home and lab was higher than latencies, with two participants influencing this lower repeatability between locations. Response consistency and SNR also patterned together, with a trend for higher SNRs to pair with more consistent responses in both the home and lab environments. Conclusions Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of obtaining high-quality ABR recordings within a simulated home environment that closely approximate those recorded in a more traditional recording environment. This line of work may open doors to greater accessibility to underserved clinical and research populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Parker
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs
- Connecticut Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs
| | - Candace Slack
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs
| | - Erika Skoe
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs
- Connecticut Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs
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15
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Liebig J, Friederici AD, Neef NE. Auditory brainstem measures and genotyping boost the prediction of literacy: A longitudinal study on early markers of dyslexia. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 46:100869. [PMID: 33091833 PMCID: PMC7576516 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Multi-domain profiles advance retrospective prediction of emergent literacy. DCDC2 and KIAA0319 risk variants influence emergent spelling skills. Combined DYX2 and auditory brainstem measures enhance predictive model fits. Additional benefit of preliterate phonological awareness on predictive power.
Literacy acquisition is impaired in children with developmental dyslexia resulting in lifelong struggle to read and spell. Proper diagnosis is usually late and commonly achieved after structured schooling started, which causes delayed interventions. Legascreen set out to develop a preclinical screening to identify children at risk of developmental dyslexia. To this end we examined 93 preliterate German children, half of them with a family history of dyslexia and half of them without a family history. We assessed standard demographic and behavioral precursors of literacy, acquired saliva samples for genotyping, and recorded speech-evoked brainstem responses to add an objective physiological measure. Reading and spelling was assessed after two years of structured literacy instruction. Multifactorial regression analyses considering demographic information, genotypes, and auditory brainstem encoding, predicted children’s literacy skills to varying degrees. These predictions were improved by adding the standard psychometrics with a slightly higher impact on spelling compared to reading comprehension. Our findings suggest that gene-brain-behavior profiling has the potential to determine the risk of developmental dyslexia. At the same time our results imply the need for a more sophisticated assessment to fully account for the disparate cognitive profiles and the multifactorial basis of developmental dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Liebig
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstr. 1a, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Angela D Friederici
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstr. 1a, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Nicole E Neef
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Stephanstr. 1a, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Straße 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, Georg-August-University, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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16
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Laasonen M, Lahti-Nuuttila P, Leppämäki S, Tani P, Wikgren J, Harno H, Oksanen-Hennah H, Pothos E, Cleeremans A, Dye MWG, Cousineau D, Hokkanen L. Project DyAdd: Non-linguistic Theories of Dyslexia Predict Intelligence. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:316. [PMID: 32922276 PMCID: PMC7456923 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Two themes have puzzled the research on developmental and learning disorders for decades. First, some of the risk and protective factors behind developmental challenges are suggested to be shared and some are suggested to be specific for a given condition. Second, language-based learning difficulties like dyslexia are suggested to result from or correlate with non-linguistic aspects of information processing as well. In the current study, we investigated how adults with developmental dyslexia or ADHD as well as healthy controls cluster across various dimensions designed to tap the prominent non-linguistic theories of dyslexia. Participants were 18–55-year-old adults with dyslexia (n = 36), ADHD (n = 22), and controls (n = 35). Non-linguistic theories investigated with experimental designs included temporal processing impairment, abnormal cerebellar functioning, procedural learning difficulties, as well as visual processing and attention deficits. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to investigate the emerging groups and patterns of results across these experimental designs. LPA suggested three groups: (1) a large group with average performance in the experimental designs, (2) participants predominantly from the clinical groups but with enhanced conditioning learning, and (3) participants predominantly from the dyslexia group with temporal processing as well as visual processing and attention deficits. Despite the presence of these distinct patterns, participants did not cluster very well based on their original status, nor did the LPA groups differ in their dyslexia or ADHD-related neuropsychological profiles. Remarkably, the LPA groups did differ in their intelligence. These results highlight the continuous and overlapping nature of the observed difficulties and support the multiple deficit model of developmental disorders, which suggests shared risk factors for developmental challenges. It also appears that some of the risk factors suggested by the prominent non-linguistic theories of dyslexia relate to the general level of functioning in tests of intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja Laasonen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Phoniatrics - Head and Neck Surgery, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pekka Lahti-Nuuttila
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Phoniatrics - Head and Neck Surgery, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sami Leppämäki
- Department of Psychiatry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pekka Tani
- Department of Psychiatry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Hanna Harno
- Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Henna Oksanen-Hennah
- Pediatric Neuropsychiatric Unit, Department of Child Psychiatry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Emmanuel Pothos
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Axel Cleeremans
- Center for Research in Cognition & Neurosciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Matthew W G Dye
- National Technical Institute for the Deaf, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Denis Cousineau
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Laura Hokkanen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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17
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Tecoulesco L, Skoe E, Naigles LR. Phonetic discrimination mediates the relationship between auditory brainstem response stability and syntactic performance. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2020; 208:104810. [PMID: 32683226 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2020.104810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Syntactic, lexical, and phonological/phonetic knowledge are vital aspects of macro level language ability. Prior research has predominantly focused on environmental or cortical sources of individual differences in these areas; however, a growing literature suggests an auditory brainstem contribution to language performance in both typically developing (TD) populations and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study investigates whether one aspect of auditory brainstem responses (ABRs), neural response stability, which is a metric reflecting trial-by-trial consistency in the neural encoding of sound, can predict syntactic, lexical, and phonetic performance in TD and ASD school-aged children. Pooling across children with ASD and TD, results showed that higher neural stability in response to the syllable /da/ was associated with better phonetic discrimination, and with better syntactic performance on a standardized measure. Furthermore, phonetic discrimination was a successful mediator of the relationship between neural stability and syntactic performance. This study supports the growing body of literature that stable subcortical neural encoding of sound is important for successful language performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Tecoulesco
- University of Connecticut Psychological Sciences, United States.
| | - Erika Skoe
- University of Connecticut, Speech Language and Hearing Sciences, United States
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18
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De Vos A, Vanvooren S, Ghesquière P, Wouters J. Subcortical auditory neural synchronization is deficient in pre-reading children who develop dyslexia. Dev Sci 2020; 23:e12945. [PMID: 32034978 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Auditory processing of temporal information in speech is sustained by synchronized firing of neurons along the entire auditory pathway. In school-aged children and adults with dyslexia, neural synchronization deficits have been found at cortical levels of the auditory system, however, these deficits do not appear to be present in pre-reading children. An alternative role for subcortical synchronization in reading development and dyslexia has been suggested, but remains debated. By means of a longitudinal study, we assessed cognitive reading-related skills and subcortical auditory steady-state responses (80 Hz ASSRs) in a group of children before formal reading instruction (pre-reading), after 1 year of formal reading instruction (beginning reading), and after 3 years of formal reading instruction (more advanced reading). Children were retrospectively classified into three groups based on family risk and literacy achievement: typically developing children without a family risk for dyslexia, typically developing children with a family risk for dyslexia, and children who developed dyslexia. Our results reveal that children who developed dyslexia demonstrate decreased 80 Hz ASSRs at the pre-reading stage. This effect is no longer present after the onset of reading instruction, due to an atypical developmental increase in 80 Hz ASSRs between the pre-reading and the beginning reading stage. A forward stepwise logistic regression analysis showed that literacy achievement was predictable with an accuracy of 90.4% based on a model including three significant predictors, that is, family risk for dyslexia (R = .31), phonological awareness (R = .23), and 80 Hz ASSRs (R = .26). Given that (1) abnormalities in subcortical ASSRs preceded reading acquisition in children who developed dyslexia and (2) subcortical ASSRs contributed to the prediction of literacy achievement, subcortical auditory synchronization deficits may constitute a pre-reading risk factor in the emergence of dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid De Vos
- Department of Neurosciences, Research Group Experimental ORL, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sophie Vanvooren
- Department of Neurosciences, Research Group Experimental ORL, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pol Ghesquière
- Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Wouters
- Department of Neurosciences, Research Group Experimental ORL, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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19
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Ma S, Zhang X, Hatfield H, Wei WH. Pinyin Is an Effective Proxy for Early Screening for Mandarin-Speaking Children at Risk of Reading Disorders. Front Psychol 2020; 11:327. [PMID: 32174873 PMCID: PMC7055296 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Reading disorders (RD) are common and complex neuropsychological conditions associated with decoding printed words and/or reading comprehension. Early identification of children at risk of RD is critical to allow timely interventions before mental suffering and reading impairment take place. Chinese is a unique medium for studying RD because of extra efforts required in reading acquisition of characters based on meaning rather than phonology. Pinyin, an alphabetic coding system mapping Mandarin sounds to characters, is important to develop oral language skills and a promising candidate for early screening for RD. In this pilot study, we used a cohort of 100 students (50 each in Grades 1 and 2) to derive novel profiles of applying Pinyin to identify early schoolers at risk of RD. Each student had comprehensive reading related measures in two consecutive years, including Pinyin reading and reading comprehension tested in the first and second year, respectively. We showed that Pinyin reading was mainly determined by phonological awareness, was well developed in Grade 1 and the top predictor of reading comprehension (explaining ∼30% of variance, p < 1.0e-05). Further, students who performed poorly in Pinyin reading [e.g. 1 standard deviation (SD) below the average, counting 14% in Grade 1 and 10% in Grade 2], tended to perform poorly in future reading comprehension tests, including all four individuals in Grade 1 (two out of three in Grade 2) who scored 1.5 SDs below the average. Pinyin is therefore an effective proxy for early screening for Mandarin-speaking children at risk of RD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaowei Ma
- School of Foreign Languages, Langfang Teachers University, Langfang, China
- Department of English and Linguistics, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- School of Teacher Education, College of Education, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Xiumei Zhang
- School of Foreign Languages, Langfang Teachers University, Langfang, China
| | - Hunter Hatfield
- Department of English and Linguistics, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Wen-Hua Wei
- Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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20
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Krizman J, Kraus N. Analyzing the FFR: A tutorial for decoding the richness of auditory function. Hear Res 2019; 382:107779. [PMID: 31505395 PMCID: PMC6778514 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2019.107779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The frequency-following response, or FFR, is a neurophysiological response to sound that precisely reflects the ongoing dynamics of sound. It can be used to study the integrity and malleability of neural encoding of sound across the lifespan. Sound processing in the brain can be impaired with pathology and enhanced through expertise. The FFR can index linguistic deprivation, autism, concussion, and reading impairment, and can reflect the impact of enrichment with short-term training, bilingualism, and musicianship. Because of this vast potential, interest in the FFR has grown considerably in the decade since our first tutorial. Despite its widespread adoption, there remains a gap in the current knowledge of its analytical potential. This tutorial aims to bridge this gap. Using recording methods we have employed for the last 20 + years, we have explored many analysis strategies. In this tutorial, we review what we have learned and what we think constitutes the most effective ways of capturing what the FFR can tell us. The tutorial covers FFR components (timing, fundamental frequency, harmonics) and factors that influence FFR (stimulus polarity, response averaging, and stimulus presentation/recording jitter). The spotlight is on FFR analyses, including ways to analyze FFR timing (peaks, autocorrelation, phase consistency, cross-phaseogram), magnitude (RMS, SNR, FFT), and fidelity (stimulus-response correlations, response-to-response correlations and response consistency). The wealth of information contained within an FFR recording brings us closer to understanding how the brain reconstructs our sonic world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Krizman
- Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA. https://www.brainvolts.northwestern.edu
| | - Nina Kraus
- Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
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21
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Lipowska M, Łada AB, Pawlicka P, Jurek P. The use of the Warnke Method in dyslexia therapy for children. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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22
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Atypical neural processing of rise time by adults with dyslexia. Cortex 2019; 113:128-140. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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23
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Centanni TM, Norton ES, Ozernov-Palchik O, Park A, Beach SD, Halverson K, Gaab N, Gabrieli JDE. Disrupted left fusiform response to print in beginning kindergartners is associated with subsequent reading. Neuroimage Clin 2019; 22:101715. [PMID: 30798165 PMCID: PMC6389729 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Dyslexia is a common neurobiological disorder in which a child fails to acquire typical word reading skills despite adequate opportunity and intelligence. The visual word form area (VWFA) is a region within the left fusiform gyrus that specializes for print over the course of reading acquisition and is often hypoactivated in individuals with dyslexia. It is currently unknown whether atypicalities in this brain region are already present in kindergarten children who will subsequently develop dyslexia. Here, we measured fMRI activation in response to letters and false fonts in bilateral fusiform gyrus in children with and without risk for dyslexia (defined by family history or low scores on assessments of pre-reading skills, such as phonological awareness). We then followed these children longitudinally through the end of second grade to evaluate whether brain activation patterns in kindergarten were related to second-grade reading outcomes. Compared to typical readers who exhibited no risk factors for reading impairment in kindergarten, there was significant hypoactivation to both letters and false-fonts in the left fusiform gyrus in at-risk children who subsequently developed reading impairment, but not in at-risk children who developed typical reading skills. There were no significant differences in letter- or false-font responses in the right fusiform gyrus among the groups. The finding that hypoactivation to print in the VWFA is present in children who subsequently develop reading impairment even prior to the onset of formal reading instruction suggests that atypical responses to print play an early role in the development of reading impairments such as dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy M Centanni
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States; Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX 76129, United States.
| | - Elizabeth S Norton
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States; Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, United States
| | - Ola Ozernov-Palchik
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Anne Park
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Sara D Beach
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Kelly Halverson
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Nadine Gaab
- Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States; Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - John D E Gabrieli
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and MIT Integrated Learning Initiative, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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24
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Silva CD, Gualberto BD, Neves IMP. The performance of elementary public and private school students pre and post phonological intervention. REVISTA CEFAC 2019. [DOI: 10.1590/1982-0216/201921215718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Purpose: this study aims to compare the performance, pre and post phonological intervention, of 2nd year students in public and private education, with and without learning disabilities. Methods: 30 students from the 2nd year of elementary education, public and private participated in these study, distributed in: GI, GII and GIII, composed of 15 public school students, submitted to pre and post testing and phonological intervention; and GIV, GV and GVI, comprising 15 private school students, submitted to pre and post testing and phonological intervention. In the pre and post testing moment, the Linguistic Cognitive Skills Assessment Protocol Adaptive was performed. For the intervention, the phonological tasks of letter/sound relationship, analysis, synthesis and manipulation of phonemes and syllables were conducted. Results: there was a statistically significant performance for the students submitted to the phonological intervention program of the public and private education, in all skills analyzed. Conclusion: the intervention was effective in both scopes, public and private, however, private school students did better in a greater number of skills analyzed as compared to public school ones, suggesting the influence of the intervention associated with the stimuli offered in the process of schooling.
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25
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Centanni TM, Pantazis D, Truong DT, Gruen JR, Gabrieli JDE, Hogan TP. Increased variability of stimulus-driven cortical responses is associated with genetic variability in children with and without dyslexia. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2018; 34:7-17. [PMID: 29894888 PMCID: PMC6969288 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals with dyslexia exhibit increased brainstem variability in response to sound. It is unknown as to whether increased variability extends to neocortical regions associated with audition and reading, extends to visual stimuli, and whether increased variability characterizes all children with dyslexia or, instead, a specific subset of children. We evaluated the consistency of stimulus-evoked neural responses in children with (N = 20) or without dyslexia (N = 12) as measured by magnetoencephalography (MEG). Approximately half of the children with dyslexia had significantly higher levels of variability in cortical responses to both auditory and visual stimuli in multiple nodes of the reading network. There was a significant and positive relationship between the number of risk alleles at rs6935076 in the dyslexia-susceptibility gene KIAA0319 and the degree of neural variability in primary auditory cortex across all participants. This gene has been linked with neural variability in rodents and in typical readers. These findings indicate that unstable representations of auditory and visual stimuli in auditory and other reading-related neocortical regions are present in a subset of children with dyslexia and support the link between the gene KIAA0319 and the auditory neural variability across children with or without dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Centanni
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA; Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA.
| | - D Pantazis
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - D T Truong
- Departments of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - J R Gruen
- Departments of Pediatrics and Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - J D E Gabrieli
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - T P Hogan
- Communication Sciences and Disorders, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA, USA
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Tichko P, Skoe E. Musical Experience, Sensorineural Auditory Processing, and Reading Subskills in Adults. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E77. [PMID: 29702572 PMCID: PMC5977068 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8050077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental research suggests that sensorineural auditory processing, reading subskills (e.g., phonological awareness and rapid naming), and musical experience are related during early periods of reading development. Interestingly, recent work suggests that these relations may extend into adulthood, with indices of sensorineural auditory processing relating to global reading ability. However, it is largely unknown whether sensorineural auditory processing relates to specific reading subskills, such as phonological awareness and rapid naming, as well as musical experience in mature readers. To address this question, we recorded electrophysiological responses to a repeating click (auditory stimulus) in a sample of adult readers. We then investigated relations between electrophysiological responses to sound, reading subskills, and musical experience in this same set of adult readers. Analyses suggest that sensorineural auditory processing, reading subskills, and musical experience are related in adulthood, with faster neural conduction times and greater musical experience associated with stronger rapid-naming skills. These results are similar to the developmental findings that suggest reading subskills are related to sensorineural auditory processing and musical experience in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parker Tichko
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Developmental Psychology Division, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| | - Erika Skoe
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Developmental Psychology Division, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
- Connecticut Institute for the Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
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27
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Rendall AR, Perrino PA, LoTurco JJ, Fitch RH. Evaluation of visual motion perception ability in mice with knockout of the dyslexia candidate susceptibility gene Dcdc2. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2018; 18:e12450. [PMID: 29232042 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Developmental dyslexia is a heritable disability characterized by difficulties in learning to read and write. The neurobiological and genetic mechanisms underlying dyslexia remain poorly understood; however, several dyslexia candidate risk genes have been identified. One of these candidate risk genes-doublecortin domain containing 2 (DCDC2)-has been shown to play a role in neuronal migration and cilia function. At a behavioral level, variants of DCDC2 have been associated with impairments in phonological processing, working memory and reading speed. Additionally, a specific mutation in DCDC2 has been strongly linked to deficits in motion perception-a skill subserving reading abilities. To further explore the relationship between DCDC2 and dyslexia, a genetic knockout (KO) of the rodent homolog of DCDC2 (Dcdc2) was created. Initial studies showed that Dcdc2 KOs display deficits in auditory processing and working memory. The current study was designed to evaluate the association between DCDC2 and motion perception, as these skills have not yet been assessed in the Dcdc2 KO mouse model. We developed a novel motion perception task, utilizing touchscreen technology and operant conditioning. Dcdc2 KOs displayed deficits on the Pairwise Discrimination task specifically as motion was added to visual stimuli. Following behavioral assessment, brains were histologically prepared for neuroanatomical analysis of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). The cumulative distribution showed that Dcdc2 KOs exhibited more small neurons and fewer larger neurons in the LGN. Results compliment findings that DCDC2 genetic alteration results in anomalies in visual motion pathways in a subpopulation of dyslexic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Rendall
- Department of Psychology/Behavioral Neuroscience and Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
| | - P A Perrino
- Department of Psychology/Behavioral Neuroscience and Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
| | - J J LoTurco
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
| | - R H Fitch
- Department of Psychology/Behavioral Neuroscience and Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
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28
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Guidi LG, Mattley J, Martinez-Garay I, Monaco AP, Linden JF, Velayos-Baeza A, Molnár Z. Knockout Mice for Dyslexia Susceptibility Gene Homologs KIAA0319 and KIAA0319L have Unaffected Neuronal Migration but Display Abnormal Auditory Processing. Cereb Cortex 2017; 27:5831-5845. [PMID: 29045729 PMCID: PMC5939205 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhx269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects reading ability caused by genetic and non-genetic factors. Amongst the susceptibility genes identified to date, KIAA0319 is a prime candidate. RNA-interference experiments in rats suggested its involvement in cortical migration but we could not confirm these findings in Kiaa0319-mutant mice. Given its homologous gene Kiaa0319L (AU040320) has also been proposed to play a role in neuronal migration, we interrogated whether absence of AU040320 alone or together with KIAA0319 affects migration in the developing brain. Analyses of AU040320 and double Kiaa0319;AU040320 knockouts (dKO) revealed no evidence for impaired cortical lamination, neuronal migration, neurogenesis or other anatomical abnormalities. However, dKO mice displayed an auditory deficit in a behavioral gap-in-noise detection task. In addition, recordings of click-evoked auditory brainstem responses revealed suprathreshold deficits in wave III amplitude in AU040320-KO mice, and more general deficits in dKOs. These findings suggest that absence of AU040320 disrupts firing and/or synchrony of activity in the auditory brainstem, while loss of both proteins might affect both peripheral and central auditory function. Overall, these results stand against the proposed role of KIAA0319 and AU040320 in neuronal migration and outline their relationship with deficits in the auditory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz G Guidi
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Jane Mattley
- Ear Institute, University College London, London WC1X 8EE, UK
| | - Isabel Martinez-Garay
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
| | - Anthony P Monaco
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
- Current address: Office of the President, Ballou Hall, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Jennifer F Linden
- Ear Institute, University College London, London WC1X 8EE, UK
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology & Pharmacology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | | | - Zoltán Molnár
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QX, UK
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29
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Waye MMY, Poo LK, Ho CSH. Study of Genetic Association With DCDC2 and Developmental Dyslexia in Hong Kong Chinese Children. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health 2017; 13:104-114. [PMID: 29081827 PMCID: PMC5633722 DOI: 10.2174/1745017901713010104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Background: Doublecortin domain-containing 2 (DCDC2) is a doublecortin domain-containing gene family member and the doublecortin domain has been demonstrated to bind to tubulin and enhance microtubule polymerization. It has been associated with developmental dyslexia and this protein family member is thought to function in neuronal migration where it may affect the signaling of primary cilia. Objectives: The objective of the study is to find out if there is any association of genetic variants of DCDC2 with developmental dyslexia in Chinese children from Hong Kong. Methods: The dyslexic children were diagnosed as developmental dyslexia (DD) using the Hong Kong Test of Specific Learning Difficulties in Reading and Writing (HKT-SpLD) by the Department of Health, Hong Kong. Saliva specimens were collected and their genotypes of DCDC2 were studied by DNA sequencing or TaqMan Real Time PCR Assays. Results: The most significant marker is rs6940827 which is associated with DD with nominal p-value (0.011). However, this marker did not remain significant after multiple testing corrections and the adjusted p-value from permutation test was 0.1329. Using sliding window haplotype analysis, several haplotypes were found to be nominally associated with DD. The smallest nominal p values was 0.0036 (rs2996452-rs1318700, C-A). However, none of the p values could withstand the multiple testing corrections. Conclusion: Despite early findings that DCDC2 is a strong candidate for developmental dyslexia and that some of the genetic variants have been linked to brain structure and functions, our findings showed that DCDC2 is not strongly associated with dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary M Y Waye
- The Nethersole School of Nursing, The Nethersole School of Nursing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Lim K Poo
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Connie S-H Ho
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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30
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Hancock R, Pugh KR, Hoeft F. Neural Noise Hypothesis of Developmental Dyslexia. Trends Cogn Sci 2017; 21:434-448. [PMID: 28400089 PMCID: PMC5489551 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Developmental dyslexia (decoding-based reading disorder; RD) is a complex trait with multifactorial origins at the genetic, neural, and cognitive levels. There is evidence that low-level sensory-processing deficits precede and underlie phonological problems, which are one of the best-documented aspects of RD. RD is also associated with impairments in integrating visual symbols with their corresponding speech sounds. Although causal relationships between sensory processing, print-speech integration, and fluent reading, and their neural bases are debated, these processes all require precise timing mechanisms across distributed brain networks. Neural excitability and neural noise are fundamental to these timing mechanisms. Here, we propose that neural noise stemming from increased neural excitability in cortical networks implicated in reading is one key distal contributor to RD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roeland Hancock
- Department of Psychiatry and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), 401 Parnassus Ave. Box-0984, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Science-based Innovation in Learning Center (SILC), 401 Parnassus Ave. Box-0984, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
| | - Kenneth R Pugh
- Haskins Laboratories, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; Department of Linguistics, Yale University, 370 Temple Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, 330 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Fumiko Hoeft
- Department of Psychiatry and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), 401 Parnassus Ave. Box-0984, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Haskins Laboratories, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; Department of Neuropsychiatry, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan; Science-based Innovation in Learning Center (SILC), 401 Parnassus Ave. Box-0984, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Dyslexia Center, UCSF, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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