Socioeconomic status and neural processing of a go/no-go task in preschoolers: An assessment of the P3b

Childhood family socioeconomic status is linked to adult brain electrophysiology

A large body of research has linked childhood family socioeconomic status (SES) to neurodevelopment in childhood and adolescence. However, it remains unclear to what extent childhood family SES relates to brain functioning in adulthood. To address this gap, the present study investigated the associations between retrospective accounts of objective and subjective childhood family SES and two well-established electrophysiological indices of brain functioning in adulthood-the MMN and P3b event-related potentials (ERP) components, as neural correlates of automatic change detection and cognitive control respectively. Higher objective childhood family SES, as proxied by parent educational attainment in childhood, was associated with larger (more positive) P3b amplitudes in adulthood. In contrast, there was no association between childhood parent educational attainment and the magnitude of MMN. Adult reports of subjective family SES during childhood were not related to the magnitude of MMN or P3b. These findings suggest that the links between childhood parent educational attainment and brain functioning may extend into adulthood, especially for brain functions supporting cognitive control. These results also imply that, when using retrospective accounts of childhood family SES, objective and subjective reports likely proxy different childhood experiences that have distinct links with specific neurodevelopmental outcomes, and that some of these links may not persist into adulthood. Our findings lay the groundwork for future investigations on how and why childhood family SES relates to brain functioning in adulthood.

Executive functions and problem-solving-The contribution of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility to science problem-solving performance in elementary school students

Previous research has shown that executive functions can contribute to successful problem-solving in preschool and elementary school children. However, most studies did not simultaneously assess the role of different specific aspects of executive functions. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate the individual contribution of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility to science problem-solving performance in elementary school children. A total of 478 children from first and second grades (Mage = 7.44 years) participated in our study. They performed a Go/No-go task (inhibition), a Corsi blocks backward task (working memory), a flexible item selection task (cognitive flexibility), and three science problem-solving tasks, including two gear turning tasks and one stabilization task. Structural equation modeling showed that working memory and cognitive flexibility individually contributed to problem-solving performance, whereas inhibition did not. We conclude that maintaining task requirements and dynamic object relations (working memory) and switching between different problem-solving phases (cognitive flexibility) are essential components of successful science problem-solving in elementary school children. Inhibitory processes may be more relevant in tasks involving a higher degree of interference at the task or response level.

Electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control in children: Relations with prenatal maternal risk factors and child psychopathology

Inhibitory control plays an important role in children's cognitive and socioemotional development, including their psychopathology. It has been established that contextual factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and parents' psychopathology are associated with children's inhibitory control. However, the relations between the neural correlates of inhibitory control and contextual factors have been rarely examined in longitudinal studies. In the present study, we used both event-related potential (ERP) components and time-frequency measures of inhibitory control to evaluate the neural pathways between contextual factors, including prenatal SES and maternal psychopathology, and children's behavioral and emotional problems in a large sample of children (N = 560; 51.75% females; Mage = 7.13 years; Rangeage = 4-11 years). Results showed that theta power, which was positively predicted by prenatal SES and was negatively related to children's externalizing problems, mediated the longitudinal and negative relation between them. ERP amplitudes and latencies did not mediate the longitudinal association between prenatal risk factors (i.e., prenatal SES and maternal psychopathology) and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Our findings increase our understanding of the neural pathways linking early risk factors to children's psychopathology.

Are there associations between sedentary time inside and outside preschools with preschoolers' executive function?

Preschool children spend a large part of their day at school, and a large part of that time they spend in sedentary time. Although sedentary time negatively affects regions of the brain responsible for cognition, it is believed that the type of sedentary time performed can favor executive functions' performance. The present study explored the associations between sedentary time inside and outside preschools with executive function (EF) tasks in preschoolers. Seventy-three preschool children (60% girls; 55.0 ± 9.1 months of age) were objectively assessed for sedentary time and physical activity (PA) using accelerometers (wGT3X). EF was evaluated using the Go/No-Go paradigm through the Early Years Toolbox - YET. Go's inverse efficiency (IE) and the No-Go accuracy were analyzed. To establish possible associations between EF and sedentary time, a structural equation model was conducted after adjustments for sex, age, body mass index, and moderate-to-vigorous PA. A significant and positive association between sedentary time on weekend days and IE (b = 0.61; p < .001) was observed. The general model explained 52% of the variation in IE and 2.1% in the accuracy of No-Go. The sedentary time on weekend days seems to be related to worse EI. This result emphasizes a context-dependent association between time being sedentary and preschoolers' EF. Further investigations should focus on exploring the type of sedentary behavior children are engaged in different contexts.

Unraveling the social hierarchy: Exploring behavioral and neural dynamics in shaping inhibitory control

Inhibitory control is crucial for regulating emotions, suppressing biases, and inhibiting inappropriate responses in social interactions. Social rank, or perceived position in the hierarchy, can influence inhibitory control, with high-rank individuals requiring it to regulate dominant behavior and low-rank individuals requiring it to regulate emotional reactions or avoid submissive behaviors. Furthermore, research suggests that social status can affect the neural mechanisms underlying inhibitory control, leading to differences in abilities and strategies based on perceived rank. In this study, we investigated the effects of social rank on inhibitory control using a dot estimation task to prime social hierarchy. Subsequently, we assessed the inhibitory control of the participants using a Go/Nogo task with photos of individuals in different social ranks. The study recruited a total of 43 students (22 males and 21 females), with a mean age of 26.8 years (SD=4.08). We measured both behavioral (reaction time and response accuracy) and electrophysiological (N200 and P300 event-related potentials) responses to investigate the neural correlates of inhibitory control. Results showed that participants responded slower to lower-rank individuals but had higher accuracy when inhibiting their response to them. The N200 amplitude was greater when presented with higher ranks stimuli in Go trials, indicating greater conflict monitoring, while the P300 amplitude was significantly higher in Nogo trials compared to Go trials. These findings suggest that social rank can influence inhibitory control and highlight the importance of considering the impact of social hierarchy in social interactions.

Component-specific developmental trajectories of ERP indices of cognitive control in early childhood

Early childhood is characterized by robust developmental changes in cognitive control. However, our understanding of intra-individual change in neural indices of cognitive control during this period remains limited. Here, we examined developmental changes in event-related potential (ERP) indices of cognitive control from preschool through first grade, in a large and diverse sample of children (N = 257). We recorded ERPs during a visual Go/No-Go task. N2 and P3b mean amplitudes were extracted from the observed waveforms (Go and No-Go) and the difference wave (No-Go minus Go, or ∆). Latent growth curve modeling revealed that while N2 Go and No-Go amplitudes showed no linear change, P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes displayed linear decreases in magnitude (became less positive) over time. ∆N2 amplitude demonstrated a linear increase in magnitude (became more negative) over time whereas ∆P3b amplitude was more positive in kindergarten compared to preschool. Younger age in preschool predicted greater rates of change in ∆N2 amplitude, and higher maternal education predicted larger initial P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes in preschool. Our findings suggest that observed waveforms and difference waves are not interchangeable for indexing neurodevelopment, and the developmental trajectories of different ERP indices of cognitive control are component-specific in early childhood.

The effectiveness of a school mindfulness-based intervention on the neural correlates of inhibitory control in children at risk: A randomized control trial

Interest in the applications of mindfulness practice in education is growing in the scientific community. Recent research has shown that mindfulness practice in schools may be beneficial for executive functions (EFs) which are abilities crucial for healthy development. The study of the effects of mindfulness practices on children's neural correlates of EFs, particularly inhibitory control, may provide relevant information about the impact and mechanisms of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) in children. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of a MBI in elementary school children on the neural correlates of inhibitory control via a randomized controlled trial. Children from two 4th grade classrooms and two 5th grade classrooms located in a school identified as having low socioeconomic status in Santiago de Chile were randomly assigned to either receive a MBI or serve as active controls and receive a social skills program. Both before and after the interventions, electroencephalographic activity was recorded during a modified version of the Go/Nogo task in a subsample of children in each group. Additionally, teachers completed questionnaires of students' EFs and students completed self-report measures. Results revealed increases in EFs assessed by questionnaires together with improved P3 amplitude associated with successful response inhibition in children who received the MBI compared to active controls. These results contribute to the understanding of the ways in which mindfulness practices can promote the development of inhibitory control together with EF improvement, factors identified as critical for children's social and emotional development and positive mental health. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: This study investigated the effects of a mindfulness-based intervention in children from a low socioeconomic status school on neural correlates of EFs. Children performed a Go/Nogo task while electroencephalographic activity was recorded and completed questionnaires before and after a MBI or an active control program. Improvements in EFs assessed by questionnaires together with an increased Nogo-P3 activity associated with successful inhibition in children who received the MBI were found. The results could contribute to understand how mindfulness practice can promote the development of inhibitory control in children from vulnerable populations.

Parental, Teacher and Peer Effects on the Social Behaviors of Chinese Adolescents: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis

Adolescent behavior is closely related to academic and long-term personal development, and adolescents are vulnerable to the influences from people around them. This study aimed to analyze the factors and mechanisms that influence the behavior of adolescents. It examines the impact of family, teachers, and peers on adolescent prosocial behavior and misconduct. Data were obtained from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) follow-up data (2014-2015 school year) and 7835 middle school student participants were used for analysis. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to explore the influence and mechanisms of family, teachers, and peers on the development of adolescent social behavior. The findings showed that parental relationships, parental discipline, teacher supervision, and positive peer behavior were positively associated with adolescent prosocial behaviors and reduced the incidence of delinquent behaviors, while frequent home-school contact was associated with misconduct (all p < 0.01). These results remained significant after controlling for gender, residence, only-child status, family financial situation, and paternal education. Significant others in an adolescent's life play multiple essential roles in forming and developing adolescent behavior and in directly influencing them. To guide the prosocial behaviors of middle school students and reduce delinquent behavior, we should build harmonious parent-child, peer, and teacher-student relationships, teach according to their aptitudes, pay attention to particular groups and strengthen psychological health education to develop their self-esteem and self-confidence.

Perinatal and early childhood biomarkers of psychosocial stress and adverse experiences

The human brain develops through a complex interplay of genetic and environmental influences. During critical periods of development, experiences shape brain architecture, often with long-lasting effects. If experiences are adverse, the effects may include the risk of mental and physical disease, whereas positive environments may increase the likelihood of healthy outcomes. Understanding how psychosocial stress and adverse experiences are embedded in biological systems and how we can identify markers of risk may lead to discovering new approaches to improve patient care and outcomes. Biomarkers can be used to identify specific intervention targets and at-risk children early when physiological system malleability increases the likelihood of intervention success. However, identifying reliable biomarkers has been challenging, particularly in the perinatal period and the first years of life, including in preterm infants. This review explores the landscape of psychosocial stress and adverse experience biomarkers. We highlight potential benefits and challenges of identifying risk clinically and different sub-signatures of stress, and in their ability to inform targeted interventions. Finally, we propose that the combination of preterm birth and adversity amplifies the risk for abnormal development and calls for a focus on this group of infants within the field of psychosocial stress and adverse experience biomarkers. IMPACT: Reviews the landscape of biomarkers of psychosocial stress and adverse experiences in the perinatal period and early childhood and highlights the potential benefits and challenges of their clinical utility in identifying risk status in children, and in developing targeted interventions. Explores associations between psychosocial stress and adverse experiences in childhood with prematurity and identifies potential areas of assessment and intervention to improve outcomes in this at-risk group.

Neural correlates of inhibitory control and associations with cognitive outcomes in Bangladeshi children exposed to early adversities

There is strong support for the view that children growing up in low-income homes typically evince poorer performance on tests of inhibitory control compared to those growing up in higher income homes. Unfortunately, the vast majority of the work documenting this association has been conducted in high-income countries. It is not yet known whether the mechanisms found to mediate this association would generalize to children in low- and middle-income countries, where the risks of exposure to extreme poverty and a wide range of both biological and psychosocial hazards may be greater. We examined relations among early adversity, neural correlates of inhibitory control, and cognitive outcomes in 154 5-year-old children living in Dhaka, Bangladesh, an area with a high prevalence of poverty. Participants completed a go/no-go task assessing inhibitory control and their behavioral and event-related potential responses were assessed. Cortical source analysis was performed. We collected measures of poverty, malnutrition, maternal mental health, psychosocial adversity, and cognitive skills. Supporting studies in high-income countries, children in this sample exhibited a longer N2 latency and higher P3 amplitude to the no-go versus go condition. Unexpectedly, children had a more pronounced N2 amplitude during go trials than no-go trials. The N2 latency was related to their behavioral accuracy on the go/no-go task. The P3 mean amplitude, behavioral accuracy, and reaction time during the task were all associated with intelligence-quotient (IQ) scores. Children who experienced higher levels of psychosocial adversity had lower accuracy on the task and lower IQ scores.

Impact of Early Childhood Malnutrition on Adult Brain Function: An Evoked-Related Potentials Study

More than 200 million children under the age of 5 years are affected by malnutrition worldwide according to the World Health Organization. The Barbados Nutrition Study (BNS) is a 55-year longitudinal study on a Barbadian cohort with histories of moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) limited to the first year of life and a healthy comparison group. Using quantitative electroencephalography (EEG), differences in brain function during childhood (lower alpha1 activity and higher theta, alpha2 and beta activity) have previously been highlighted between participants who suffered from early PEM and controls. In order to determine whether similar differences persisted into adulthood, our current study used recordings obtained during a Go-No-Go task in a subsample of the original BNS cohort [population size (N) = 53] at ages 45–51 years. We found that previously malnourished adults [sample size (n) = 24] had a higher rate of omission errors on the task relative to controls (n = 29). Evoked-Related Potentials (ERP) were significantly different in participants with histories of early PEM, who presented with lower N2 amplitudes. These findings are typically associated with impaired conflict monitoring and/or attention deficits and may therefore be linked to the attentional and executive function deficits that have been previously reported in this cohort in childhood and again in middle adulthood.

Validity and reliability of the movement assessment battery second edition test in children with and without motor impairment: A prospective cohort study

Background

Examining the reliability and validity of the second edition movement assessment battery test (MABC-2) in children with and without motor impairment.

Materials and methods

In this prospective cohort study, the MABC-2 test and developmental coordination disorder questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ′07) were completed by children and their parents. By using 95% confidence intervals, minimal detectable change (MDC95) was calculated, and concurrent validity was investigated. By applying the MABC-2 test as a reference standard (cut-off fifth centile), sensitivity and specificity were examined.

Results

273 children (mean age: 6.3 ± 2.3 years; 70% male) with and without motor impairment completed the investigation. For test-retest reliability, intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) was >0.89 for the MABC-2 test. The MDC95 value for the motor skill test was 5.76. There was a significant correlation between the MABC-2 test and DCDQ′07 (r = 0.60, P < 0.001) and the Go/No-Go test (r = 0.50, P < 0.001). Overall, the sensitivity was very high (90%), the specificity was low (46%), and positive and negative predictive values were high (69% and 81%, respectively).

Conclusion

The MABC-2 test can be considered a valid and reliable motor skill assessment tool for children with and without motor impairment.

•

The MABC-2 test is a valid tool for children with and without motor impairment.

•

The MABC-2 test is a reliable tool for children with and without motor impairment.

•

The MABC-2 is a sensitive tool for detecting motor skill performance impairments.

The effects of reward on children's Stroop performance: Interactions with temperament

The effects of rewards on executive function (EF) reflect bidirectional interactions among motivational and executive systems that vary with age and temperament. However, methodological limitations hinder understanding of the precise influences of incentives on early EF, including the role of reward sensitivity. In this within-subjects study, ninety-three 3.5- to 5-year-olds (42 girls; 22% Hispanic; 78% White) residing in the United States completed equivalent EF measures (Stroop and non-Stroop phases) in both rewarded and non-rewarded conditions. Rewards enhanced Stroop accuracy and slowed overall response times (ds = 0.29-0.40). Critically, children with low parent-reported reward sensitivity exhibited greater reward-based increases in Stroop accuracy (r = -.30). These findings provide valuable insights on early motivation-cognition integration, highlighting temperament as a mechanism underlying these interactions.

[Formula: see text] Neural correlates of socioeconomic status in early childhood: a systematic review of the literature

It is now established that socioeconomic variables are associated with cognitive, academic achievement, and psychiatric outcomes. Recent years have shown the advance in our understanding of how socioeconomic status (SES) relates to brain development in the first years of life (ages 0-5 years). However, it remains unknown which neural structures and functions are most sensitive to the environmental experiences associated with SES. Pubmed, PsycInfo, and Google Scholar databases from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2019, were systematically searched using terms "Neural" OR "Neuroimaging" OR "Brain" OR "Brain development," AND "Socioeconomic" OR "SES" OR "Income" OR "Disadvantage" OR "Education," AND "Early childhood" OR "Early development". Nineteen studies were included in the full review after applying all exclusion criteria. Studies revealed associations between socioeconomic and neural measures and indicated that, in the first years of life, certain neural functions and structures (e.g., those implicated in language and executive function) may be more sensitive to socioeconomic context than others. Findings broadly support the hypothesis that SES associations with neural structure and function operate on a gradient. Socioeconomic status is reflected in neural architecture and function of very young children, as early as shortly after birth, with its effects possibly growing throughout early childhood as a result of postnatal experiences. Although socioeconomic associations with neural measures were relatively consistent across studies, results from this review are not conclusive enough to supply a neural phenotype of low SES. Further work is necessary to understand causal mechanisms underlying SES-brain associations.

EEG signatures of cognitive and social development of preschool children-a systematic review

Background

Early identification of preschool children who are at risk of faltering in their development is essential to ensuring that all children attain their full potential. Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used to measure neural correlates of cognitive and social development in children for decades. Effective portable and low-cost EEG devices increase the potential of its use to assess neurodevelopment in children at scale and particularly in low-resource settings. We conducted a systematic review aimed to synthesise EEG measures of cognitive and social development in 2-5-year old children. Our secondary aim was to identify how these measures differ across a) the course of development within this age range, b) gender and c) socioeconomic status (SES).

Methods and findings

A systematic literature search identified 51 studies for inclusion in this review. Data relevant to the primary and secondary aims was extracted from these studies and an assessment for risk of bias was done, which highlighted the need for harmonisation of EEG data collection and analysis methods across research groups and more detailed reporting of participant characteristics. Studies reported on the domains of executive function (n = 22 papers), selective auditory attention (n = 9), learning and memory (n = 5), processing of faces (n = 7) and emotional stimuli (n = 8). For papers investigating executive function and selective auditory attention, the most commonly reported measures were alpha power and the amplitude and latency of positive (P1, P2, P3) and negative (N1, N2) deflections of event related potential (ERPs) components. The N170 and P1 ERP components were the most commonly reported neural responses to face and emotional faces stimuli. A mid-latency negative component and positive slow wave were used to index learning and memory, and late positive potential in response to emotional non-face stimuli. While almost half the studies described changes in EEG measures across age, only eight studies disaggregated results based on gender, and six included children from low income households to assess the impact of SES on neurodevelopment. No studies were conducted in low- and middle-income countries.

Conclusion

This review has identified power across the EEG spectrum and ERP components to be the measures most commonly reported in studies in which preschool children engage in tasks indexing cognitive and social development. It has also highlighted the need for additional research into their changes across age and based on gender and SES.

The Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Scalp Event-Related Potentials: A Systematic Review

Several decades of behavioral research have established that variations in socioeconomic status (SES) are related to differences in cognitive performance. Neuroimaging and psychophysiological techniques have recently emerged as a method of choice to better understand the neurobiological processes underlying this phenomenon. Here we present a systematic review of a particular sub-domain of this field. Specifically, we used the PICOS approach to review studies investigating potential relationships between SES and scalp event-related brain potentials (ERP). This review found evidence that SES is related to amplitude variations in a diverse range of ERPs: P1, N1, N2, Error-Related Negativities (ERN), N400, auditory evoked potentials, negative difference waves (Nd), P3 and slow waves (SW). These ERPs include early, mid-latency and late potentials that reflect a broad range of cognitive processes (e.g., automatic attentional processes, overt attention, language, executive function, etc.). In this review, all SES effects on ERPs appeared to reflect an impairment or a less efficient form of task-related neural activity for low-SES compared to high-SES individuals. Overall, these results confirm that a wide variety of distinct neural processes with different functional meanings are sensitive to SES differences. The findings of this review also suggest that the relationship between SES and some ERP components may depend on the developmental stage of study participants. Results are further discussed in terms of the current limitations of this field and future avenues of research.

A Network Perspective on the Relationship between Screen Time, Executive Function, and Fundamental Motor Skills among Preschoolers

The present study aimed to analyze the dynamic and nonlinear association between screen time, executive function (EF), and fundamental motor skills (FMS) in preschoolers, considering sex and body mass index (BMI) from a network perspective. Forty-two preschoolers (24 boys, 3.91 ± 0.77 years old) provided screen time, EF, FMS, and BMI data. EF was measured using the Go/No Go task, and accuracy of Go (sustain attention), reaction time of Go, and accuracy of No Go (inhibitory control) were considered. Relationships between screen time, EF, FMS, sex, and BMI were explored using a network analysis. The emerged network highlights that screen time is intensely associated with the other variables in the network, while the accuracy of Go has the greater connectivity with other nodes in the network (2.27), being the most sensitive to potential intervention changes. Moreover, sex (1.74), screen time (0.93), and accuracy of Go (0.71) showed the greatest closeness. This study showed that in the emerged network, independent of sex, screen exposure affects the accuracy on Go task, and these components affect the variables in the network, as motor abilities and tasks involved in inhibitory control.

An Event-Related Potentials Study of Executive Functioning in Adults With a History of Institutionalization

The current study investigated the long-term effects of institutionalization on the inhibitory control of young adults raised in orphanages using the color-word Stroop task. We examined whether young adults raised in institutions (IC group; n = 24; M = 22.17 years, SD = 6.7) would demonstrate poorer behavioral performance and atypical neural response to incongruent stimuli compared to their peers raised in biological families (Biological Family Care, BFC group; n = 28; M = 22.25 years, SD = 4.9). Accuracy analysis revealed that all participants were less accurate in the incongruent condition, however, no group differences were found. Reaction time analysis showed that the institutional care (IC) group was overall slower than the BFC. No significant differences in neural response to stimuli incongruence were identified. The absence of group differences in the interference condition can be explained by the low complexity of the Stroop task in the current study. The IC group showed a reduced P3 event-related potential component on both the congruent and incongruent trials. Findings suggest general attention difficulties in this population, rather than inhibitory control deficits.