Faster learners transfer their knowledge better: Behavioral, mnemonic, and neural mechanisms of individual differences in children's learning

Long-term abacus training gains in children are predicted by medial temporal lobe anatomy and circuitry

Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) is a widely used educational tool for enhancing math learning, offering an accessible and cost-effective method for classroom implementation. Despite its universal appeal, the neurocognitive mechanisms that drive the efficacy of AMC training remain poorly understood. Notably, although abacus training relies heavily on the rapid recall of number positions and sequences, the role of memory systems in driving long-term AMC learning remains unknown. Here, we sought to address this gap by investigating the role of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in predicting long-term AMC training gains in second-grade children, who were longitudinally assessed up to fifth grade. Leveraging multimodal neuroimaging data, we tested the hypothesis that MTL systems, known for their involvement in associative memory, are instrumental in facilitating AMC-induced improvements in math skills. We found that gray matter volume in bilateral MTL, along with functional connectivity between the MTL and frontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices, significantly predicted learning gains. Intriguingly, greater gray matter volume but weaker connectivity of the posterior parietal cortex predicted better learning outcomes, offering a more nuanced view of brain systems at play in AMC training. Our findings not only underscore the critical role of the MTL memory system in AMC training but also illuminate the neurobiological factors contributing to individual differences in cognitive skill acquisition. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/StVooNRc7T8. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We investigated the role of medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in driving children's math learning following abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) training. AMC training improved math skills in elementary school children across their second and fifth grade. MTL structural integrity and functional connectivity with prefrontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices predicted long-term AMC training-related gains.

Short-term number sense training recapitulates long-term neurodevelopmental changes from childhood to adolescence

Number sense is fundamental to the development of numerical problem-solving skills. In early childhood, children establish associations between non-symbolic (e.g., a set of dots) and symbolic (e.g., Arabic numerals) representations of quantity. The developmental estrangement theory proposes that the relationship between non-symbolic and symbolic representations of quantity evolves with age, with increased dissociation across development. Consistent with this theory, recent research suggests that cross-format neural representational similarity (NRS) between non-symbolic and symbolic quantities is correlated with arithmetic fluency in children but not in adolescents. However, it is not known if short-term training (STT) can induce similar changes as long-term development. In this study, children aged 7-10 years underwent a theoretically motivated 4-week number sense training. Using multivariate neural pattern analysis, we investigated whether short-term learning could modify the relation between cross-format NRS and arithmetic skills. Our results revealed a significant correlation between cross-format NRS and arithmetic fluency in distributed brain regions, including the parietal and prefrontal cortices, prior to training. However, this association was no longer observed after training, and multivariate predictive models confirmed these findings. Our findings provide evidence that intensive STT during early childhood can promote behavioral improvements and neural plasticity that resemble and recapitulate long-term neurodevelopmental changes that occur from childhood to adolescence. More generally, our study contributes to our understanding of the malleability of number sense and highlights the potential for targeted interventions to shape neurodevelopmental trajectories in early childhood. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We tested the hypothesis that short-term number sense training induces the dissociation of symbolic numbers from non-symbolic representations of quantity in children. We leveraged a theoretically motivated intervention and multivariate pattern analysis to determine training-induced neurocognitive changes in the relation between number sense and arithmetic problem-solving skills. Neural representational similarity between non-symbolic and symbolic quantity representations was correlated with arithmetic skills before training but not after training. Short-term training recapitulates long-term neurodevelopmental changes associated with numerical problem-solving from childhood to adolescence.

Integrated number sense tutoring remediates aberrant neural representations in children with mathematical disabilities

Number sense is essential for early mathematical development but it is compromised in children with mathematical disabilities (MD). Here we investigate the impact of a personalized 4-week Integrated Number Sense (INS) tutoring program aimed at improving the connection between nonsymbolic (sets of objects) and symbolic (Arabic numerals) representations in children with MD. Utilizing neural pattern analysis, we found that INS tutoring not only improved cross-format mapping but also significantly boosted arithmetic fluency in children with MD. Critically, the tutoring normalized previously low levels of cross-format neural representations in these children to pre-tutoring levels observed in typically developing, especially in key brain regions associated with numerical cognition. Moreover, we identified distinct, 'inverted U-shaped' neurodevelopmental changes in the MD group, suggesting unique neural plasticity during mathematical skill development. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of targeted INS tutoring for remediating numerical deficits in MD, and offer a foundation for developing evidence-based educational interventions.

Atypical cognitive training-induced learning and brain plasticity and their relation to insistence on sameness in children with autism

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) often display atypical learning styles; however, little is known regarding learning-related brain plasticity and its relation to clinical phenotypic features. Here, we investigate cognitive learning and neural plasticity using functional brain imaging and a novel numerical problem-solving training protocol. Children with ASD showed comparable learning relative to typically developing children but were less likely to shift from rule-based to memory-based strategy. While learning gains in typically developing children were associated with greater plasticity of neural representations in the medial temporal lobe and intraparietal sulcus, learning in children with ASD was associated with more stable neural representations. Crucially, the relation between learning and plasticity of neural representations was moderated by insistence on sameness, a core phenotypic feature of ASD. Our study uncovers atypical cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying learning in children with ASD, and informs pedagogical strategies for nurturing cognitive abilities in childhood autism.

Atypical cognitive training-induced learning and brain plasticity and their relation to insistence on sameness in children with autism

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often display atypical learning styles, however little is known regarding learning-related brain plasticity and its relation to clinical phenotypic features. Here, we investigate cognitive learning and neural plasticity using functional brain imaging and a novel numerical problem-solving training protocol. Children with ASD showed comparable learning relative to typically developing children but were less likely to shift from rule-based to memory-based strategy. Critically, while learning gains in typically developing children were associated with greater plasticity of neural representations in the medial temporal lobe and intraparietal sulcus, learning in children with ASD was associated with more stable neural representations. Crucially, the relation between learning and plasticity of neural representations was moderated by insistence on sameness, a core phenotypic feature of ASD. Our study uncovers atypical cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying learning in children with ASD, and informs pedagogical strategies for nurturing cognitive abilities in childhood autism.

Effects of a Complex Physical Activity Program on Children's Arithmetic Problem Solving and Arithmetic Reasoning Abilities

Research has shown that higher levels of physical activity are associated with better cognitive performance in children. However, the benefits of physical activity on academic achievement and specifically on mathematics performance need to be further explored. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of a complex physical activity (CPA) intervention program, including cognitive involvement, on children’s mathematics performance. The participants were 128 children (aged 12−13 years) attending third grade in three middle schools. They were randomly allocated into a CPA intervention (n = 64) or a waitlist control group (n = 64), the latter of which was given a regular and easy-to-perform activity program. At baseline and after the intervention, students’ physical fitness was measured using a battery of standardized motor tests (20 m shuttle run test, curl-up test, push-up test, and sit and reach test). In addition, the AC-MT 11-14 test was administered to allow a standardized and comprehensive assessment of arithmetic problem-solving and arithmetic reasoning abilities. In comparison to the control, the intervention group showed significant improvements (p < 0.001) in comprehension and production (d = 1.88), arithmetic reasoning (d = 2.50), and problem solving (d = 1.32), as well as in 20 m shuttle run test (d = 1.81), push-up test (d = 1.88), curl-up (d = 3.52), and sit and reach (d = 2.52). No significant changes were found in the control group. In conclusion, findings showed that a 12-week CPA intervention program can improve mathematical performance in children in the third grade of middle school. CPA intervention may be an effective method to improve academic performance and avoid student failure.

Foundational Number Sense Training Gains Are Predicted by Hippocampal-Parietal Circuits

The development of mathematical skills in early childhood relies on number sense, the foundational ability to discriminate among quantities. Number sense in early childhood is predictive of academic and professional success, and deficits in number sense are thought to underlie lifelong impairments in mathematical abilities. Despite its importance, the brain circuit mechanisms that support number sense learning remain poorly understood. Here, we designed a theoretically motivated training program to determine brain circuit mechanisms underlying foundational number sense learning in female and male elementary school-age children (7-10 years). Our 4 week integrative number sense training program gradually strengthened the understanding of the relations between symbolic (Arabic numerals) and nonsymbolic (sets of items) representations of quantity. We found that our number sense training program improved symbolic quantity discrimination ability in children across a wide range of math abilities including children with learning difficulties. Crucially, the strength of pretraining functional connectivity between the hippocampus and intraparietal sulcus, brain regions implicated in associative learning and quantity discrimination, respectively, predicted individual differences in number sense learning across typically developing children and children with learning difficulties. Reverse meta-analysis of interregional coactivations across 14,371 fMRI studies and 89 cognitive functions confirmed a reliable role for hippocampal-intraparietal sulcus circuits in learning. Our study identifies a canonical hippocampal-parietal circuit for learning that plays a foundational role in children's cognitive skill acquisition. Findings provide important insights into neurobiological circuit markers of individual differences in children's learning and delineate a robust target for effective cognitive interventions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Mathematical skill development relies on number sense, the ability to discriminate among quantities. Here, we develop a theoretically motivated training program and investigate brain circuits that predict number sense learning in children during a period important for acquisition of foundational cognitive skills. Our integrated number sense training program was effective in children across a wide a range of math abilities, including children with learning difficulties. We identify hippocampal-parietal circuits that predict individual differences in learning gains. Our study identifies a brain circuit critical for the acquisition of foundational cognitive skills, which will be useful for developing effective interventions to remediate learning disabilities.

Causal dynamics and information flow in parietal-temporal-hippocampal circuits during mental arithmetic revealed by high-temporal resolution human intracranial EEG

Mental arithmetic involves distributed brain regions spanning parietal and temporal cortices, yet little is known about the neural dynamics of causal functional circuits that link them. Here we use high-temporal resolution (1000 Hz sampling rate) intracranial EEG from 35 participants, 362 electrodes, and 1727 electrode pairs, to investigate dynamic causal circuits linking posterior parietal cortex (PPC) with ventral temporal-occipital cortex and hippocampal regions which constitute the perceptual, visuospatial, and mnemonic building blocks of mental arithmetic. Nonlinear phase transfer entropy measures capable of capturing information flow identified dorsal PPC as a causal inflow hub during mental arithmetic, with strong causal influences from fusiform gyrus in ventral temporal-occipital cortex as well as the hippocampus. Net causal inflow into dorsal PPC was significantly higher during mental arithmetic, compared to both resting-state and verbal memory recall. Our analysis also revealed functional heterogeneity of casual signaling in the PPC, with greater net causal inflow into the dorsal PCC, compared to ventral PPC. Additionally, the strength of causal influences was significantly higher on dorsal, compared to ventral, PPC from the hippocampus, and ventral temporal-occipital cortex during mental arithmetic, when compared to both resting-state and verbal memory recall. Our findings provide novel insights into dynamic neural circuits and hubs underlying numerical problem solving and reveal neurophysiological circuit mechanisms by which both the visual number form processing and declarative memory systems dynamically engage the PPC during mental arithmetic.

Emerging neurodevelopmental perspectives on mathematical learning

Strong foundational skills in mathematical problem solving, acquired in early childhood, are critical not only for success in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) fields but also for quantitative reasoning in everyday life. The acquisition of mathematical skills relies on protracted interactive specialization of functional brain networks across development. Using a systems neuroscience approach, this review synthesizes emerging perspectives on neurodevelopmental pathways of mathematical learning, highlighting the functional brain architecture that supports these processes and sources of heterogeneity in mathematical skill acquisition. We identify the core neural building blocks of numerical cognition, anchored in the posterior parietal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices, and describe how memory and cognitive control systems, anchored in the medial temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex, help scaffold mathematical skill development. We highlight how interactive specialization of functional circuits influences mathematical learning across different stages of development. Functional and structural brain integrity and plasticity associated with math learning can be examined using an individual differences approach to better understand sources of heterogeneity in learning, including cognitive, affective, motivational, and sociocultural factors. Our review emphasizes the dynamic role of neurodevelopmental processes in mathematical learning and cognitive development more generally.

Neurocognitive modeling of latent memory processes reveals reorganization of hippocampal-cortical circuits underlying learning and efficient strategies

Efficient memory-based problem-solving strategies are a cardinal feature of expertise across a wide range of cognitive domains in childhood. However, little is known about the neurocognitive mechanisms that underlie the acquisition of efficient memory-based problem-solving strategies. Here we develop, to the best of our knowledge, a novel neurocognitive process model of latent memory processes to investigate how cognitive training designed to improve children's problem-solving skills alters brain network organization and leads to increased use and efficiency of memory retrieval-based strategies. We found that training increased both the use and efficiency of memory retrieval. Functional brain network analysis revealed training-induced changes in modular network organization, characterized by increase in network modules and reorganization of hippocampal-cortical circuits. Critically, training-related changes in modular network organization predicted performance gains, with emergent hippocampal, rather than parietal cortex, circuitry driving gains in efficiency of memory retrieval. Our findings elucidate a neurocognitive process model of brain network mechanisms that drive learning and gains in children's efficient problem-solving strategies.

Generalization and the hippocampus: More than one story?

Memory-based cognition depends on both the ability to remember specific details of individual experiences and the ability to combine information across experiences to generalize and derive new knowledge. A hippocampal role in rapid encoding of specific events is long established. More recent research also demonstrates hippocampal contributions to generalization, but their nature is still debated. The current review provides an overview of hippocampal-based generalization in two lines of research-episodic inference and categorization-and discusses evidence for four candidate mechanisms and representational schemes that may underpin such generalization. We highlight evidence showing that the hippocampus contributes specific memories to generalization decisions, but also forms generalized representations that integrate information across experiences. Multiple views are currently plausible of how such generalized representations form and relate to specific memories. Future research that uses behavioral and neural indices of both generalization and specificity may help resolve between the candidate generalization mechanisms, with the possibility that more than one view of hippocampal-based generalization may be valid. Importantly, all views share the emphasis on the broader role of the hippocampus in cognition that goes beyond remembering the past.