Competition between Blown fuse and WASP for WIP binding regulates the dynamics of WASP-dependent actin polymerization in vivo

Inter-organ steroid hormone signaling promotes myoblast fusion via direct transcriptional regulation of a single key effector gene

Steroid hormones regulate tissue development and physiology by modulating the transcription of a broad spectrum of genes. In insects, the principal steroid hormones, ecdysteroids, trigger the expression of thousands of genes through a cascade of transcription factors (TFs) to coordinate developmental transitions such as larval molting and metamorphosis. However, whether ecdysteroid signaling can bypass transcriptional hierarchies to exert its function in individual developmental processes is unclear. Here, we report that a single non-TF effector gene mediates the transcriptional output of ecdysteroid signaling in Drosophila myoblast fusion, a critical step in muscle development and differentiation. Specifically, we show that the 20-hydroxyecdysone (commonly referred to as "ecdysone") secreted from an extraembryonic tissue, amnioserosa, acts on embryonic muscle cells to directly activate the expression of antisocial (ants), which encodes an essential scaffold protein enriched at the fusogenic synapse. Not only is ants transcription directly regulated by the heterodimeric ecdysone receptor complex composed of ecdysone receptor (EcR) and ultraspiracle (USP) via ecdysone-response elements but also more strikingly, expression of ants alone is sufficient to rescue the myoblast fusion defect in ecdysone signaling-deficient mutants. We further show that EcR/USP and a muscle-specific TF Twist synergistically activate ants expression in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, our study provides the first example of a steroid hormone directly activating the expression of a single key non-TF effector gene to regulate a developmental process via inter-organ signaling and provides a new paradigm for understanding steroid hormone signaling in other developmental and physiological processes.

The cellular architecture and molecular determinants of the zebrafish fusogenic synapse

Myoblast fusion is an indispensable process in skeletal muscle development and regeneration. Studies in Drosophila led to the discovery of the asymmetric fusogenic synapse, in which one cell invades its fusion partner with actin-propelled membrane protrusions to promote fusion. However, the timing and sites of vertebrate myoblast fusion remain elusive. Here, we show that fusion between zebrafish fast muscle cells is mediated by an F-actin-enriched invasive structure. Two cell adhesion molecules, Jam2a and Jam3b, are associated with the actin structure, with Jam2a being the major organizer. The Arp2/3 actin nucleation-promoting factors, WAVE and WASP-but not the bipartite fusogenic proteins, Myomaker or Myomixer-promote the formation of the invasive structure. Moreover, the convergence of fusogen-containing microdomains and the invasive protrusions is a prerequisite for cell membrane fusion. Thus, our study provides unprecedented insights into the cellular architecture and molecular determinants of the asymmetric fusogenic synapse in an intact vertebrate animal.

Amphioxus muscle transcriptomes reveal vertebrate-like myoblast fusion genes and a highly conserved role of insulin signalling in the metabolism of muscle

BACKGROUND

The formation and functioning of muscles are fundamental aspects of animal biology, and the evolution of 'muscle genes' is central to our understanding of this tissue. Feeding-fasting-refeeding experiments have been widely used to assess muscle cellular and metabolic responses to nutrition. Though these studies have focused on vertebrate models and only a few invertebrate systems, they have found similar processes are involved in muscle degradation and maintenance. Motivation for these studies stems from interest in diseases whose pathologies involve muscle atrophy, a symptom also triggered by fasting, as well as commercial interest in the muscle mass of animals kept for consumption. Experimentally modelling atrophy by manipulating nutritional state causes muscle mass to be depleted during starvation and replenished with refeeding so that the genetic mechanisms controlling muscle growth and degradation can be understood.

RESULTS

Using amphioxus, the earliest branching chordate lineage, we address the gap in previous work stemming from comparisons between distantly related vertebrate and invertebrate models. Our amphioxus feeding-fasting-refeeding muscle transcriptomes reveal a highly conserved myogenic program and that the pro-orthologues of many vertebrate myoblast fusion genes were present in the ancestral chordate, despite these invertebrate chordates having unfused mononucleate myocytes. We found that genes differentially expressed between fed and fasted amphioxus were orthologous to the genes that respond to nutritional state in vertebrates. This response is driven in a large part by the highly conserved IGF/Akt/FOXO pathway, where depleted nutrient levels result in activation of FOXO, a transcription factor with many autophagy-related gene targets.

CONCLUSION

Reconstruction of these gene networks and pathways in amphioxus muscle provides a key point of comparison between the distantly related groups assessed thus far, significantly refining the reconstruction of the ancestral state for chordate myoblast fusion genes and identifying the extensive role of duplicated genes in the IGF/Akt/FOXO pathway across animals. Our study elucidates the evolutionary trajectory of muscle genes as they relate to the increased complexity of vertebrate muscles and muscle development.

Drosophila melanogaster: A Model System to Study Distinct Genetic Programs in Myoblast Fusion

Muscle fibers are multinucleated cells that arise during embryogenesis through the fusion of mononucleated myoblasts. Myoblast fusion is a lifelong process that is crucial for the growth and regeneration of muscles. Understanding the molecular mechanism of myoblast fusion may open the way for novel therapies in muscle wasting and weakness. Recent reports in Drosophila and mammals have provided new mechanistic insights into myoblast fusion. In Drosophila, muscle formation occurs twice: during embryogenesis and metamorphosis. A fundamental feature is the formation of a cell–cell communication structure that brings the apposing membranes into close proximity and recruits possible fusogenic proteins. However, genetic studies suggest that myoblast fusion in Drosophila is not a uniform process. The complexity of the players involved in myoblast fusion can be modulated depending on the type of muscle that is formed. In this review, we introduce the different types of multinucleated muscles that form during Drosophila development and provide an overview in advances that have been made to understand the mechanism of myoblast fusion. Finally, we will discuss conceptual frameworks in cell–cell fusion in Drosophila and mammals.

Hedgehog signaling and Tre1 regulate actin dynamics through PI(4,5)P2 to direct migration of Drosophila embryonic germ cells

The Tre1 G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) was discovered to be required for Drosophila germ cell (GC) coalescence almost two decades ago, yet the molecular events both upstream and downstream of Tre1 activation remain poorly understood. To gain insight into these events, we describe a bona fide null allele and both untagged and tagged versions of Tre1. We find that the primary defect with complete Tre1 loss is the failure of GCs to properly navigate, with GC mis-migration occurring from early stages. We find that Tre1 localizes with F-actin at the migration front, along with PI(4,5)P₂; dPIP5K, an enzyme that generates PI(4,5)P₂; and dWIP, a protein that binds activated Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP), which stimulates F-actin polymerization. We show that Tre1 is required for polarized accumulation of F-actin, PI(4,5)P₂, and dPIP5K. Smoothened also localizes with F-actin at the migration front, and Hh, through Smo, increases levels of Tre1 at the plasma membrane and Tre1’s association with dPIP5K.

Kim et al. uncover molecular and cellular events upstream and downstream of the Tre1 G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), which is required for germ cell navigation in Drosophila. Hedgehog signaling through Smoothened localizes Tre1 to activate F-actin assembly through dPIP5K, PI(4,5)P₂, and WASP.

Dynamin regulates the dynamics and mechanical strength of the actin cytoskeleton as a multifilament actin-bundling protein

The dynamin GTPase is known to bundle actin filaments, but the underlying molecular mechanism and physiological relevance remain unclear. Our genetic analyses revealed a function of dynamin in propelling invasive membrane protrusions during myoblast fusion in vivo. Using biochemistry, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy and cryo-electron tomography, we show that dynamin bundles actin while forming a helical structure. At its full capacity, each dynamin helix captures 12-16 actin filaments on the outer rim of the helix. GTP hydrolysis by dynamin triggers disassembly of fully assembled dynamin helices, releasing free dynamin dimers/tetramers and facilitating Arp2/3-mediated branched actin polymerization. The assembly/disassembly cycles of dynamin promote continuous actin bundling to generate mechanically stiff actin super-bundles. Super-resolution and immunogold platinum replica electron microscopy revealed dynamin along actin bundles at the fusogenic synapse. These findings implicate dynamin as a unique multifilament actin-bundling protein that regulates the dynamics and mechanical strength of the actin cytoskeletal network.

Drosophila Myoblast Fusion: Invasion and Resistance for the Ultimate Union

Cell-cell fusion is indispensable for creating life and building syncytial tissues and organs. Ever since the discovery of cell-cell fusion, how cells join together to form zygotes and multinucleated syncytia has remained a fundamental question in cell and developmental biology. In the past two decades, Drosophila myoblast fusion has been used as a powerful genetic model to unravel mechanisms underlying cell-cell fusion in vivo. Many evolutionarily conserved fusion-promoting factors have been identified and so has a surprising and conserved cellular mechanism. In this review, we revisit key findings in Drosophila myoblast fusion and highlight the critical roles of cellular invasion and resistance in driving cell membrane fusion.

The fusogenic synapse at a glance

Cell-cell fusion is a fundamental process underlying fertilization, development, regeneration and physiology of metazoans. It is a multi-step process involving cell recognition and adhesion, actin cytoskeletal rearrangements, fusogen engagement, lipid mixing and fusion pore formation, ultimately resulting in the integration of two fusion partners. Here, we focus on the asymmetric actin cytoskeletal rearrangements at the site of fusion, known as the fusogenic synapse, which was first discovered during myoblast fusion in Drosophila embryos and later also found in mammalian muscle and non-muscle cells. At the asymmetric fusogenic synapse, actin-propelled invasive membrane protrusions from an attacking fusion partner trigger actomyosin-based mechanosensory responses in the receiving cell. The interplay between the invasive and resisting forces generated by the two fusion partners puts the fusogenic synapse under high mechanical tension and brings the two cell membranes into close proximity, promoting the engagement of fusogens to initiate fusion pore formation. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster, we highlight the molecular, cellular and biophysical events at the asymmetric fusogenic synapse using Drosophila myoblast fusion as a model.

The Crk adapter protein is essential for Drosophila embryogenesis, where it regulates multiple actin-dependent morphogenic events

Small Src homology domain 2 (SH2) and 3 (SH3) adapter proteins regulate cell fate and behavior by mediating interactions between cell surface receptors and downstream signaling effectors in many signal transduction pathways. The CT10 regulator of kinase (Crk) family has tissue-specific roles in phagocytosis, cell migration, and neuronal development and mediates oncogenic signaling in pathways like that of Abelson kinase. However, redundancy among the two mammalian family members and the position of the Drosophila gene on the fourth chromosome precluded assessment of Crk's full role in embryogenesis. We circumvented these limitations with short hairpin RNA and CRISPR technology to assess Crk's function in Drosophila morphogenesis. We found that Crk is essential beginning in the first few hours of development, where it ensures accurate mitosis by regulating orchestrated dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton to keep mitotic spindles in syncytial embryos from colliding. In this role, it positively regulates cortical localization of the actin-related protein 2/3 complex (Arp2/3), its regulator suppressor of cAMP receptor (SCAR), and filamentous actin to actin caps and pseudocleavage furrows. Crk loss leads to the loss of nuclei and formation of multinucleate cells. We also found roles for Crk in embryonic wound healing and in axon patterning in the nervous system, where it localizes to the axons and midline glia. Thus, Crk regulates diverse events in embryogenesis that require orchestrated cytoskeletal dynamics.

RNAi Screen in Tribolium Reveals Involvement of F-BAR Proteins in Myoblast Fusion and Visceral Muscle Morphogenesis in Insects

In a large-scale RNAi screen in Tribolium castaneum for genes with knock-down phenotypes in the larval somatic musculature, one recurring phenotype was the appearance of larval muscle fibers that were significantly thinner than those in control animals. Several of the genes producing this knock-down phenotype corresponded to orthologs of Drosophila genes that are known to participate in myoblast fusion, particularly via their effects on actin polymerization. A new gene previously not implicated in myoblast fusion but displaying a similar thin-muscle knock-down phenotype was the Tribolium ortholog of Nostrin, which encodes an F-BAR and SH3 domain protein. Our genetic studies of Nostrin and Cip4, a gene encoding a structurally related protein, in Drosophila show that the encoded F-BAR proteins jointly contribute to efficient myoblast fusion during larval muscle development. Together with the F-Bar protein Syndapin they are also required for normal embryonic midgut morphogenesis. In addition, Cip4 is required together with Nostrin during the profound remodeling of the midgut visceral musculature during metamorphosis. We propose that these F-Bar proteins help govern proper morphogenesis particularly of the longitudinal midgut muscles during metamorphosis.

Spectrin is a mechanoresponsive protein shaping fusogenic synapse architecture during myoblast fusion

Spectrin is a membrane skeletal protein best known for its structural role in maintaining cell shape and protecting cells from mechanical damage. Here, we report that α/βH-spectrin (βH is also called karst) dynamically accumulates and dissolves at the fusogenic synapse between fusing Drosophila muscle cells, where an attacking fusion partner invades its receiving partner with actin-propelled protrusions to promote cell fusion. Using genetics, cell biology, biophysics and mathematical modelling, we demonstrate that spectrin exhibits a mechanosensitive accumulation in response to shear deformation, which is highly elevated at the fusogenic synapse. The transiently accumulated spectrin network functions as a cellular fence to restrict the diffusion of cell-adhesion molecules and a cellular sieve to constrict the invasive protrusions, thereby increasing the mechanical tension of the fusogenic synapse to promote cell membrane fusion. Our study reveals a function of spectrin as a mechanoresponsive protein and has general implications for understanding spectrin function in dynamic cellular processes.

The hallmarks of cell-cell fusion

Cell-cell fusion is essential for fertilization and organ development. Dedicated proteins known as fusogens are responsible for mediating membrane fusion. However, until recently, these proteins either remained unidentified or were poorly understood at the mechanistic level. Here, we review how fusogens surmount multiple energy barriers to mediate cell-cell fusion. We describe how early preparatory steps bring membranes to a distance of ∼10 nm, while fusogens act in the final approach between membranes. The mechanical force exerted by cell fusogens and the accompanying lipidic rearrangements constitute the hallmarks of cell-cell fusion. Finally, we discuss the relationship between viral and eukaryotic fusogens, highlight a classification scheme regrouping a superfamily of fusogens called Fusexins, and propose new questions and avenues of enquiry.

Requirement of the fusogenic micropeptide myomixer for muscle formation in zebrafish

Skeletal muscle formation requires fusion of mononucleated myoblasts to form multinucleated myofibers. The muscle-specific membrane proteins myomaker and myomixer cooperate to drive mammalian myoblast fusion. Whereas myomaker is highly conserved across diverse vertebrate species, myomixer is a micropeptide that shows relatively weak cross-species conservation. To explore the functional conservation of myomixer, we investigated the expression and function of the zebrafish myomixer ortholog. Here we show that myomixer expression during zebrafish embryogenesis coincides with myoblast fusion, and genetic deletion of myomixer using CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis abolishes myoblast fusion in vivo. We also identify myomixer orthologs in other species of fish and reptiles, which can cooperate with myomaker and substitute for the fusogenic activity of mammalian myomixer. Sequence comparison of these diverse myomixer orthologs reveals key amino acid residues and a minimal fusogenic peptide motif that is necessary for promoting cell-cell fusion with myomaker. Our findings highlight the evolutionary conservation of the myomaker-myomixer partnership and provide insights into the molecular basis of myoblast fusion.

Acting on identity: Myoblast fusion and the formation of the syncytial muscle fiber

The study of Drosophila muscle development dates back to the middle of the last century. Since that time, Drosophila has proved to be an ideal system for studying muscle development, differentiation, function, and disease. As in humans, Drosophila muscle forms via a series of conserved steps, starting with muscle specification, myoblast fusion, attachment to tendon cells, interactions with motorneurons, and sarcomere and myofibril formation. The genes and mechanisms required for these processes share striking similarities to those found in humans. The highly tractable genetic system and imaging approaches available in Drosophila allow for an efficient interrogation of muscle biology and for application of what we learn to other systems. In this article, we review our current understanding of muscle development in Drosophila, with a focus on myoblast fusion, the process responsible for the generation of syncytial muscle cells. We also compare and contrast those genes required for fusion in Drosophila and vertebrates.

Dielectric Response of Cytoplasmic Water and Its Connection to the Vitality of Human Red Blood Cells. II. The Influence of Storage

Maintaining an appropriate inventory of packaged blood products is a critical part of modern medicine. Consequently, the assessment of red blood cell (RBC) functionality is instrumental for the monitoring of the quality of stored RBC (sRBC) in the blood bank. We present a comprehensive study of sRBC lesion kinetics in SAGM (saline, adenine, glucose, mannitol) solution, using microwave dielectric spectroscopy (0.5-50 GHz) and cell deformability. As part of the research, we have isolated the microwave dielectric response of cytoplasmic water in sRBC. The extracted dielectric parameters are sensitive to the age of the cells and, in particular, to the critical moment of transition from discocyte to echinocyte. From the analysis of the dielectric relaxation as a function of storage-duration, we postulate that the behavior is rooted in the delicate interplay between bound and bulk water in the cellular interior. In particular, the microwave dielectric response reflects the moment when the continuous diffusion of oxygen to the cell and the oxygenation of hemoglobin affects the role played by water in the maintenance of cell integrity. These results open a possible new avenue for the noninvasive inspection of stored red blood cells, permitting a true inventory system for the modern blood bank.

The Trypanosome Exocyst: A Conserved Structure Revealing a New Role in Endocytosis

Membrane transport is an essential component of pathogenesis for most infectious organisms. In African trypanosomes, transport to and from the plasma membrane is closely coupled to immune evasion and antigenic variation. In mammals and fungi an octameric exocyst complex mediates late steps in exocytosis, but comparative genomics suggested that trypanosomes retain only six canonical subunits, implying mechanistic divergence. We directly determined the composition of the Trypanosoma brucei exocyst by affinity isolation and demonstrate that the parasite complex is nonameric, retaining all eight canonical subunits (albeit highly divergent at the sequence level) plus a novel essential subunit, Exo99. Exo99 and Sec15 knockdowns have remarkably similar phenotypes in terms of viability and impact on morphology and trafficking pathways. Significantly, both Sec15 and Exo99 have a clear function in endocytosis, and global proteomic analysis indicates an important role in maintaining the surface proteome. Taken together these data indicate additional exocyst functions in trypanosomes, which likely include endocytosis, recycling and control of surface composition. Knockdowns in HeLa cells suggest that the role in endocytosis is shared with metazoan cells. We conclude that, whilst the trypanosome exocyst has novel components, overall functionality appears conserved, and suggest that the unique subunit may provide therapeutic opportunities.

NPM-ALK phosphorylates WASp Y102 and contributes to oncogenesis of anaplastic large cell lymphoma

Mechanisms by which NPM-ALK signaling regulates cell migration, invasion and contributes to the oncogenesis of anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) are not completely understood. In an attempt to identify novel actin signaling pathways regulated by NPM-ALK, a comprehensive phosphoproteome analysis of ALCL cell lines was performed in the presence or absence of NPM-ALK activity. Numerous phosphoproteins involved in actin dynamics including Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp) were regulated by NPM-ALK. Network analysis revealed that WASp is a central component of the NPM-ALK-dependent actin signaling pathway. Here we show that NPM-ALK phosphorylates WASp at its known activation site (Y290) as well as at a novel residue (Y102). Phosphorylation of WASp at Y102 negatively regulates its interaction with Wiskott-Aldrich interacting protein and decreases its protein stability. Phosphorylation of WASp at Y102 enhances anchorage-independent growth and tumor growth in an in vivo xenograft model and enhances invasive properties of ALCL. We show that knock-down of WASp or expression of Y102F mutant of WASp decreases colony formation and in vivo tumor growth. Our results show that WASp is a novel substrate of ALK and has a critical role in regulating invasiveness and oncogenesis of ALCL.

Drosophila Kette coordinates myoblast junction dissolution and the ratio of Scar-to-WASp during myoblast fusion

The fusion of founder cells and fusion-competent myoblasts (FCMs) is crucial for muscle formation in Drosophila. Characteristic events of myoblast fusion include the recognition and adhesion of myoblasts, and the formation of branched F-actin by the Arp2/3 complex at the site of cell–cell contact. At the ultrastructural level, these events are reflected by the appearance of finger-like protrusions and electron-dense plaques that appear prior to fusion. Severe defects in myoblast fusion are caused by the loss of Kette (a homolog of Nap1 and Hem-2, also known as NCKAP1 and NCKAP1L, respectively), a member of the regulatory complex formed by Scar or WAVE proteins (represented by the single protein, Scar, in flies). kette mutants form finger-like protrusions, but the electron-dense plaques are extended. Here, we show that the electron-dense plaques in wild-type and kette mutant myoblasts resemble other electron-dense structures that are known to function as cellular junctions. Furthermore, analysis of double mutants and attempts to rescue the kette mutant phenotype with N-cadherin, wasp and genes of members of the regulatory Scar complex revealed that Kette has two functions during myoblast fusion. First, Kette controls the dissolution of electron-dense plaques. Second, Kette controls the ratio of the Arp2/3 activators Scar and WASp in FCMs.

Summary: The Drosophila protein Kette is essential for myoblast fusion. It controls the dissolution of electron-dense plaques and the ratio of Scar and WASp proteins in fusion-competent myoblasts during fusion pore formation.

Role and organization of the actin cytoskeleton during cell-cell fusion

Cell-cell fusion is a ubiquitous process that underlies fertilization and development of eukaryotes. This process requires fusogenic machineries to promote plasma membrane merging, and also relies on the organization of dedicated sub-cortical cytoskeletal assemblies. This review describes the role of actin structures, so called actin fusion foci, essential for the fusion of two distinct cell types: Drosophila myoblast cells, which fuse to form myotubes, and sexually differentiated cells of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which fuse to form a zygote. I describe the respective composition and organization of the two structures, discuss their proposed role in promoting plasma membrane apposition, and consider the universality of similar structures for cell-cell fusion.

Diaphanous regulates SCAR complex localization during Drosophila myoblast fusion

From Drosophila to man, multinucleated muscle cells form through cell-cell fusion. Using Drosophila as a model system, researchers first identified, and then demonstrated, the importance of actin cytoskeletal rearrangements at the site of fusion. These actin rearrangements at the fusion site are regulated by SCAR and WASp mediated Arp2/3 activation, which nucleates branched actin networks. Loss of SCAR, WASp or both leads to defects in myoblast fusion. Recently, we have found that the actin regulator Diaphanous (Dia) also plays a role both in organizing actin and in regulating Arp2/3 activity at the fusion site. In this Extra View article, we provide additional data showing that the Abi-SCAR complex accumulates at the fusion site and that excessive SCAR activity impairs myoblast fusion. Using constitutively active Dia constructs, we provide additional evidence that Dia functions upstream of SCAR activity to regulate actin dynamics at the fusion site and to localize the Abi-SCAR complex.

The Formin Diaphanous Regulates Myoblast Fusion through Actin Polymerization and Arp2/3 Regulation

The formation of multinucleated muscle cells through cell-cell fusion is a conserved process from fruit flies to humans. Numerous studies have shown the importance of Arp2/3, its regulators, and branched actin for the formation of an actin structure, the F-actin focus, at the fusion site. This F-actin focus forms the core of an invasive podosome-like structure that is required for myoblast fusion. In this study, we find that the formin Diaphanous (Dia), which nucleates and facilitates the elongation of actin filaments, is essential for Drosophila myoblast fusion. Following cell recognition and adhesion, Dia is enriched at the myoblast fusion site, concomitant with, and having the same dynamics as, the F-actin focus. Through analysis of Dia loss-of-function conditions using mutant alleles but particularly a dominant negative Dia transgene, we demonstrate that reduction in Dia activity in myoblasts leads to a fusion block. Significantly, no actin focus is detected, and neither branched actin regulators, SCAR or WASp, accumulate at the fusion site when Dia levels are reduced. Expression of constitutively active Dia also causes a fusion block that is associated with an increase in highly dynamic filopodia, altered actin turnover rates and F-actin distribution, and mislocalization of SCAR and WASp at the fusion site. Together our data indicate that Dia plays two roles during invasive podosome formation at the fusion site: it dictates the level of linear F-actin polymerization, and it is required for appropriate branched actin polymerization via localization of SCAR and WASp. These studies provide new insight to the mechanisms of cell-cell fusion, the relationship between different regulators of actin polymerization, and invasive podosome formation that occurs in normal development and in disease.

Drosophila comes of age as a model system for understanding the function of cytoskeletal proteins in cells, tissues, and organisms

For the last 100 years, Drosophila melanogaster has been a powerhouse genetic system for understanding mechanisms of inheritance, development, and behavior in animals. In recent years, advances in imaging and genetic tools have led to Drosophila becoming one of the most effective systems for unlocking the subcellular functions of proteins (and particularly cytoskeletal proteins) in complex developmental settings. In this review, written for non-Drosophila experts, we will discuss critical technical advances that have enabled these cell biological insights, highlighting three examples of cytoskeletal discoveries that have arisen as a result: (1) regulation of Arp2/3 complex in myoblast fusion, (2) cooperation of the actin filament nucleators Spire and Cappuccino in establishment of oocyte polarity, and (3) coordination of supracellular myosin cables. These specific examples illustrate the unique power of Drosophila both to uncover new cytoskeletal structures and functions, and to place these discoveries in a broader in vivo context, providing insights that would have been impossible in a cell culture model or in vitro. Many of the cellular structures identified in Drosophila have clear counterparts in mammalian cells and tissues, and therefore elucidating cytoskeletal functions in Drosophila will be broadly applicable to other organisms.

Mechanisms of myoblast fusion during muscle development

The development and regeneration of skeletal muscle require the fusion of mononucleated muscle cells to form multinucleated, contractile muscle fibers. Studies using a simple genetic model, Drosophila melanogaster, have discovered many evolutionarily conserved fusion-promoting factors in vivo. Recent work in zebrafish and mouse also identified several vertebrate-specific factors required for myoblast fusion. Here, we integrate progress in multiple in vivo systems and highlight conceptual advance in understanding how muscle cell membranes are brought together for fusion. We focus on the molecular machinery at the fusogenic synapse and present a three-step model to describe the molecular and cellular events leading to fusion pore formation.

Tracing myoblast fusion in Drosophila embryos by fluorescent actin probes

Myoblast fusion in the Drosophila embryo is a highly elaborate process that is initiated by Founder Cells and Fusion-Competent Myoblasts (FCMs). It occurs through an asymmetric event in which actin foci assemble in the FCMs at points of cell-cell contact and direct the formation of membrane protrusions that drive fusion. Herein, we describe the approach that we have used to image in living embryos the highly dynamic actin foci and actin-rich projections that precede myoblast fusion. We discuss resources currently available for imaging actin and myogenesis, and our experience with these resources if available. This technical report is not intended to be comprehensive on providing instruction on standard microscopy practices or software utilization. However, we discuss microscope parameters that we have used in data collection, and our experience with image processing tools in data analysis.

Morphogenesis of the somatic musculature in Drosophila melanogaster

In Drosophila melanogaster, the somatic muscle system is first formed during embryogenesis, giving rise to the larval musculature. Later during metamorphosis, this system is destroyed and replaced by an entirely new set of muscles in the adult fly. Proper formation of the larval and adult muscles is critical for basic survival functions such as hatching and crawling (in the larva), walking and flying (in the adult), and feeding (at both larval and adult stages). Myogenesis, from mononucleated muscle precursor cells to multinucleated functional muscles, is driven by a number of cellular processes that have begun to be mechanistically defined. Once the mesodermal cells destined for the myogenic lineage have been specified, individual myoblasts fuse together iteratively to form syncytial myofibers. Combining cytoplasmic contents demands a level of intracellular reorganization that, most notably, leads to redistribution of the myonuclei to maximize internuclear distance. Signaling from extending myofibers induces terminal tendon cell differentiation in the ectoderm, which results in secure muscle-tendon attachments that are critical for muscle contraction. Simultaneously, muscles become innervated and undergo sarcomerogenesis to establish the contractile apparatus that will facilitate movement. The cellular mechanisms governing these morphogenetic events share numerous parallels to mammalian development, and the basic unit of all muscle, the myofiber, is conserved from flies to mammals. Thus, studies of Drosophila myogenesis and comparisons to muscle development in other systems highlight conserved regulatory programs of biomedical relevance to general muscle biology and studies of muscle disease.

Mechanical tension drives cell membrane fusion

Membrane fusion is an energy-consuming process that requires tight juxtaposition of two lipid bilayers. Little is known about how cells overcome energy barriers to bring their membranes together for fusion. Previously, we have shown that cell-cell fusion is an asymmetric process in which an "attacking" cell drills finger-like protrusions into the "receiving" cell to promote cell fusion. Here, we show that the receiving cell mounts a Myosin II (MyoII)-mediated mechanosensory response to its invasive fusion partner. MyoII acts as a mechanosensor, which directs its force-induced recruitment to the fusion site, and the mechanosensory response of MyoII is amplified by chemical signaling initiated by cell adhesion molecules. The accumulated MyoII, in turn, increases cortical tension and promotes fusion pore formation. We propose that the protrusive and resisting forces from fusion partners put the fusogenic synapse under high mechanical tension, which helps to overcome energy barriers for membrane apposition and drives cell membrane fusion.

Live imaging provides new insights on dynamic F-actin filopodia and differential endocytosis during myoblast fusion in Drosophila

The process of myogenesis includes the recognition, adhesion, and fusion of committed myoblasts into multinucleate syncytia. In the larval body wall muscles of Drosophila, this elaborate process is initiated by Founder Cells and Fusion-Competent Myoblasts (FCMs), and cell adhesion molecules Kin-of-IrreC (Kirre) and Sticks-and-stones (Sns) on their respective surfaces. The FCMs appear to provide the driving force for fusion, via the assembly of protrusions associated with branched F-actin and the WASp, SCAR and Arp2/3 pathways. In the present study, we utilize the dorsal pharyngeal musculature that forms in the Drosophila embryo as a model to explore myoblast fusion and visualize the fusion process in live embryos. These muscles rely on the same cell types and genes as the body wall muscles, but are amenable to live imaging since they do not undergo extensive morphogenetic movement during formation. Time-lapse imaging with F-actin and membrane markers revealed dynamic FCM-associated actin-enriched protrusions that rapidly extend and retract into the myotube from different sites within the actin focus. Ultrastructural analysis of this actin-enriched area showed that they have two morphologically distinct structures: wider invasions and/or narrow filopodia that contain long linear filaments. Consistent with this, formin Diaphanous (Dia) and branched actin nucleator, Arp3, are found decorating the filopodia or enriched at the actin focus, respectively, indicating that linear actin is present along with branched actin at sites of fusion in the FCM. Gain-of-function Dia and loss-of-function Arp3 both lead to fusion defects, a decrease of F-actin foci and prominent filopodia from the FCMs. We also observed differential endocytosis of cell surface components at sites of fusion, with actin reorganizing factors, WASp and SCAR, and Kirre remaining on the myotube surface and Sns preferentially taken up with other membrane proteins into early endosomes and lysosomes in the myotube.

WIP: more than a WASp-interacting protein

WIP plays an important role in the remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton, which controls cellular activation, proliferation, and function. WIP regulates actin polymerization by linking the actin machinery to signaling cascades. WIP binding to WASp and to its homolog, N-WASp, which are central activators of the actin-nucleating complex Arp2/3, regulates their cellular distribution, function, and stability. By binding to WASp, WIP protects it from degradation and thus, is crucial for WASp retention. Indeed, most mutations that result in WAS, an X-linked immunodeficiency caused by defective/absent WASp activity, are located in the WIP-binding region of WASp. In addition, by binding directly to actin, WIP promotes the formation and stabilization of actin filaments. WASp-independent activities of WIP constitute a new research frontier and are discussed extensively in this article. Here, we review the current information on WIP in human and mouse systems, focusing on its associated proteins, its molecular-regulatory mechanisms, and its role as a key regulator of actin-based processes in the immune system.

Elizabeth Chen: fusing cells press closer

Chen studies cell–cell fusion in Drosophila myoblasts.

Tethering membrane fusion: common and different players in myoblasts and at the synapse

Drosophila

Membrane fusion is essential for the communication of membrane-defined compartments, development of multicellular organisms and tissue homeostasis. Although membrane fusion has been studied extensively, still little is known about the molecular mechanisms. Especially the intercellular fusion of cells during development and tissue homeostasis is poorly understood. Somatic muscle formation in Drosophila depends on the intercellular fusion of myoblasts. In this process, myoblasts recognize each other and adhere, thereby triggering a protein machinery that leads to electron-dense plaques, vesicles and F-actin formation at apposing membranes. Two models of how local membrane stress is achieved to induce the merging of the myoblast membranes have been proposed: the electron-dense vesicles transport and release a fusogen and F-actin bends the plasma membrane. In this review, we highlight cell-adhesion molecules and intracellular proteins known to be involved in myoblast fusion. The cell-adhesion proteins also mediate the recognition and adhesion of other cell types, such as neurons that communicate with each other via special intercellular junctions, termed chemical synapses. At these synapses, neurotransmitters are released through the intracellular fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane. As the targeting of electron-dense vesicles in myoblasts shares some similarities with the targeting of synaptic vesicle fusion, we compare molecules required for synaptic vesicle fusion to recently identified molecules involved in myoblast fusion.

Distinct genetic programs guide Drosophila circular and longitudinal visceral myoblast fusion

BACKGROUND

The visceral musculature of Drosophila larvae comprises circular visceral muscles tightly interwoven with longitudinal visceral muscles. During myogenesis, the circular muscles arise by one-to-one fusion of a circular visceral founder cell (FC) with a visceral fusion-competent myoblast (FCM) from the trunk visceral mesoderm, and longitudinal muscles arise from FCs of the caudal visceral mesoderm. Longitudinal FCs migrate anteriorly under guidance of fibroblast growth factors during embryogenesis; it is proposed that they fuse with FCMs from the trunk visceral mesoderm to give rise to syncytia containing up to six nuclei.

RESULTS

Using fluorescence in situ hybridization and immunochemical analyses, we investigated whether these fusion events during migration use the same molecular repertoire and cellular components as fusion-restricted myogenic adhesive structure (FuRMAS), the adhesive signaling center that mediates myoblast fusion in the somatic mesoderm. Longitudinal muscles were formed by the fusion of one FC with Sns-positive FCMs, and defects in FCM specification led to defects in longitudinal muscle formation. At the fusion sites, Duf/Kirre and the adaptor protein Rols7 accumulated in longitudinal FCs, and Blow and F-actin accumulated in FCMs. The accumulation of these four proteins at the fusion sites argues for FuRMAS-like adhesion and signaling centers. Longitudinal fusion was disturbed in rols and blow single, and scar wip double mutants. Mutants of wasp or its interaction partner wip had no defects in longitudinal fusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicated that all embryonic fusion events depend on the same cell-adhesion molecules, but that the need for Rols7 and regulators of F-actin distinctly differs. Rols7 was required for longitudinal visceral and somatic myoblast fusion but not for circular visceral fusion. Importantly, longitudinal fusion depended on Kette and SCAR/Wave but was independent of WASp-dependent Arp2/3 activation. Thus, the complexity of the players involved in muscle formation increases from binucleated circular muscles to longitudinal visceral muscles to somatic muscles.

Myogenesis defect due to Toca-1 knockdown can be suppressed by expression of N-WASP

Skeletal muscle formation is a multistep process involving proliferation, differentiation, alignment and fusion of myoblasts to form myotubes which fuse with additional myoblast to form myofibers. Toca-1 (Transducer of Cdc42-dependent actin assembly), is an adaptor protein which activates N-WASP in conjunction with Cdc42 to facilitate membrane invagination, endocytosis and actin cytoskeleton remodeling. Expression of Toca-1 in mouse primary myoblasts and C2C12 myoblasts was up-regulated on day 1 of differentiation and subsequently down-regulated during differentiation. Knocking down Toca-1 expression in C2C12 cells (Toca-1(KD) cells) resulted in a significant decrease in myotube formation and expression of shRNA-resistant Toca-1 in Toca-1(KD) cells rescued the myogenic defect, suggesting that the knockdown was specific and Toca-1 is essential for myotube formation. Toca-1(KD) cells exhibited elongated spindle-like morphology, expressed myogenic markers (MyoD and MyHC) and localized N-Cadherin at cell periphery similar to control cells suggesting that Toca-1 is not essential for morphological changes or expression of proteins critical for differentiation. Toca-1(KD) cells displayed prominent actin fibers suggesting a defect in actin cytoskeleton turnover necessary for cell-cell fusion. Toca-1(KD) cells migrated faster than control cells and had a reduced number of vinculin patches similar to N-WASP(KO) MEF cells. Transfection of N-WASP-expressing plasmid into Toca-1(KD) cells restored myotube formation of Toca-1(KD) cells. Thus, our results suggest that Toca-1(KD) cells have defects in formation of myotubes probably due to reduced activity of actin cytoskeleton regulators such as N-WASP. This is the first study to identify and characterize the role of Toca-1 in myogenesis.

PI(4,5)P2 regulates myoblast fusion through Arp2/3 regulator localization at the fusion site

Cell-cell fusion is a regulated process that requires merging of the opposing membranes and underlying cytoskeletons. However, the integration between membrane and cytoskeleton signaling during fusion is not known. Using Drosophila, we demonstrate that the membrane phosphoinositide PI(4,5)P2 is a crucial regulator of F-actin dynamics during myoblast fusion. PI(4,5)P2 is locally enriched and colocalizes spatially and temporally with the F-actin focus that defines the fusion site. PI(4,5)P2 enrichment depends on receptor engagement but is upstream or parallel to actin remodeling. Regulators of actin branching via Arp2/3 colocalize with PI(4,5)P2 in vivo and bind PI(4,5)P2 in vitro. Manipulation of PI(4,5)P2 availability leads to impaired fusion, with a reduction in the F-actin focus size and altered focus morphology. Mechanistically, the changes in the actin focus are due to a failure in the enrichment of actin regulators at the fusion site. Moreover, improper localization of these regulators hinders expansion of the fusion interface. Thus, PI(4,5)P2 enrichment at the fusion site encodes spatial and temporal information that regulates fusion progression through the localization of activators of actin polymerization.

Live cell imaging of in vitro human trophoblast syncytialization

Human trophoblast syncytialization, a process of cell-cell fusion, is one of the most important yet least understood events during placental development. Investigating the fusion process in a placenta in vivo is very challenging given the complexity of this process. Application of primary cultured cytotrophoblast cells isolated from term placentas and BeWo cells derived from human choriocarcinoma formulates a biphasic strategy to achieve the mechanism of trophoblast cell fusion, as the former can spontaneously fuse to form the multinucleated syncytium and the latter is capable of fusing under the treatment of forskolin (FSK). Live-cell imaging is a powerful tool that is widely used to investigate many physiological or pathological processes in various animal models or humans; however, to our knowledge, the mechanism of trophoblast cell fusion has not been reported using a live- cell imaging manner. In this study, a live-cell imaging system was used to delineate the fusion process of primary term cytotrophoblast cells and BeWo cells. By using live staining with Hoechst 33342 or cytoplasmic dyes or by stably transfecting enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and DsRed2-Nuc reporter plasmids, we observed finger-like protrusions on the cell membranes of fusion partners before fusion and the exchange of cytoplasmic contents during fusion. In summary, this study provides the first video recording of the process of trophoblast syncytialization. Furthermore, the various live-cell imaging systems used in this study will help to yield molecular insights into the syncytialization process during placental development.

Local F-actin network links synapse formation and axon branching

Axonal branching and synapse formation are tightly linked developmental events during the establishment of synaptic circuits. Newly formed synapses promote branch initiation and stability. However, little is known about molecular mechanisms that link these two processes. Here, we show that local assembly of an F-actin cytoskeleton at nascent presynaptic sites initiates both synapse formation and axon branching. We further find that assembly of the F-actin network requires a direct interaction between the synaptic cell adhesion molecule SYG-1 and a key regulator of actin cytoskeleton, the WVE-1/WAVE regulatory complex (WRC). SYG-1 cytoplasmic tail binds to the WRC using a consensus WRC interacting receptor sequence (WIRS). WRC mutants or mutating the SYG-1 WIRS motif leads to loss of local F-actin, synaptic material, and axonal branches. Together, these data suggest that synaptic adhesion molecules, which serve as a necessary component for both synaptogenesis and axonal branch formation, directly regulate subcellular actin cytoskeletal organization.

A guide to study Drosophila muscle biology

The development and molecular composition of muscle tissue is evolutionarily conserved. Drosophila is a powerful in vivo model system to investigate muscle morphogenesis and function. Here, we provide a short and comprehensive overview of the important developmental steps to build Drosophila body muscle in embryos, larvae and pupae. We describe key methods, including muscle histology, live imaging and genetics, to study these steps at various developmental stages and include simple behavioural assays to assess muscle function in larvae and adults. We list valuable antibodies and fly strains that can be used for these different methods. This overview should guide the reader to choose the best marker or the appropriate method to obtain high quality muscle morphogenesis data in Drosophila.

Actin-propelled invasive membrane protrusions promote fusogenic protein engagement during cell-cell fusion

Cell-cell fusion is critical for the conception, development, and physiology of multicellular organisms. Although cellular fusogenic proteins and the actin cytoskeleton are implicated in cell-cell fusion, it remains unclear whether and how they coordinate to promote plasma membrane fusion. We reconstituted a high-efficiency, inducible cell fusion culture system in the normally nonfusing Drosophila S2R+ cells. Both fusogenic proteins and actin cytoskeletal rearrangements were necessary for cell fusion, and in combination they were sufficient to impart fusion competence. Localized actin polymerization triggered by specific cell-cell or cell-matrix adhesion molecules propelled invasive cell membrane protrusions, which in turn promoted fusogenic protein engagement and plasma membrane fusion. This de novo cell fusion culture system reveals a general role for actin-propelled invasive membrane protrusions in driving fusogenic protein engagement during cell-cell fusion.

Genetic basis of cell-cell fusion mechanisms

Cell-cell fusion in sexually reproducing organisms is a mechanism to merge gamete genomes and, in multicellular organisms, it is a strategy to sculpt organs, such as muscle, bone, and placenta. Moreover, this mechanism has been implicated in pathological conditions, such as infection and cancer. Studies of genetic model organisms have uncovered a unifying principle: cell fusion is a genetically programmed process. This process can be divided in three stages: competence (cell induction and differentiation); commitment (cell determination, migration, and adhesion); and cell fusion (membrane merging and cytoplasmic mixing). Recent work has led to the discovery of fusogens, which are cell fusion proteins that are necessary and sufficient to fuse cell membranes. Two unrelated families of fusogens have been discovered, one in mouse placenta and one in Caenorhabditis elegans (syncytins and F proteins, respectively). Current research aims to identify new fusogens and determine the mechanisms by which they merge membranes.

Myosin heavy chain-like localizes at cell contact sites during Drosophila myoblast fusion and interacts in vitro with Rolling pebbles 7

Besides representing the sarcomeric thick filaments, myosins are involved in many cellular transport and motility processes. Myosin heavy chains are grouped into 18 classes. Here we show that in Drosophila, the unconventional group XVIII myosin heavy chain-like (Mhcl) is transcribed in the mesoderm of embryos, most prominently in founder cells (FCs). An ectopically expressed GFP-tagged Mhcl localizes in the growing muscle at cell-cell contacts towards the attached fusion competent myoblast (FCM). We further show that Mhcl interacts in vitro with the essential fusion protein Rolling pebbles 7 (Rols7), which is part of a protein complex established at cell contact sites (Fusion-restricted Myogenic-Adhesive Structure or FuRMAS). Here, branched F-actin is likely needed to widen the fusion pore and to integrate the myoblast into the growing muscle. We show that the localization of Mhcl is dependent on the presence of Rols7, and we postulate that Mhcl acts at the FuRMAS as an actin motor protein. We further show that Mhcl deficient embryos develop a wild-type musculature. We thus propose that Mhcl functions redundantly to other myosin heavy chains in myoblasts. Lastly, we found that the protein is detectable adjacent to the sarcomeric Z-discs, suggesting an additional function in mature muscles.

Disease-associated missense mutations in the EVH1 domain disrupt intrinsic WASp function causing dysregulated actin dynamics and impaired dendritic cell migration

Wiskott Aldrich syndrome (WAS), an X-linked immunodeficiency, results from loss-of-function mutations in the human hematopoietic cytoskeletal regulator gene WAS. Many missense mutations in the Ena Vasp homology1 (EVH1) domain preserve low-level WAS protein (WASp) expression and confer a milder clinical phenotype. Although disrupted binding to WASp-interacting protein (WIP) leads to enhanced WASp degradation in vivo, the intrinsic function of EVH1-mutated WASp is poorly understood. In the present study, we show that, despite mediating enhanced actin polymerization compared with wild-type WASp in vitro, EVH1 missense mutated proteins did not support full biologic function in cells, even when levels were restored by forced overexpression. Podosome assembly was aberrant and associated with dysregulated lamellipodia formation and impaired persistence of migration. At sites of residual podosome-associated actin polymerization, localization of EVH1-mutated proteins was preserved even after deletion of the entire domain, implying that WIP-WASp complex formation is not absolutely required for WASp localization. However, retention of mutant proteins in podosomes was significantly impaired and associated with reduced levels of WASp tyrosine phosphorylation. Our results indicate that the EVH1 domain is important not only for WASp stability, but also for intrinsic biologic activity in vivo.

WIP: WASP-interacting proteins at invadopodia and podosomes

Regulated cell invasion resulting from migratory and matrix-degrading events is an essential step in physiological processes such as the inflammatory response and tissue repair. Cell invasion is also thought to be a critical parameter in pathological conditions such as cancer metastasis. The migration of normal and cancer cells is largely driven by the actin cytoskeleton, which controls cell shape, adhesion and contractility. Podosomes and invadopodia are actin-rich protrusions that drive invasion in normal and cancer cells. These structures protrude from the basal region of the cell facing the extracellular matrix, where they adhere to and degrade the matrix, thus facilitating invasive migration. WASP (Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein) and WIP (WASP-interacting protein) localise to the actin rich core of podosomes and play a critical role in their formation. More recently, studies performed on microarray data sets from cancer patients of several tumour categories show a strong correlation between reduced WIP expression and improved prognosis. In this article, we identify endogenous WIP at the distal tips of cancer cell invasive protrusions and we summarise recent advances in the study of the roles of WIP- and WASP-protein families during migration and invasion of normal and cancer cells related to podosome and invadopodium generation.

Group I PAKs function downstream of Rac to promote podosome invasion during myoblast fusion in vivo

Group I p21-activated kinases organize actin filaments in myoblasts into dense foci, which promote podosome invasion and subsequent myoblast fusion.

The p21-activated kinases (PAKs) play essential roles in diverse cellular processes and are required for cell proliferation, apoptosis, polarity establishment, migration, and cell shape changes. Here, we have identified a novel function for the group I PAKs in cell–cell fusion. We show that the two Drosophila group I PAKs, DPak3 and DPak1, have partially redundant functions in myoblast fusion in vivo, with DPak3 playing a major role. DPak3 is enriched at the site of fusion colocalizing with the F-actin focus within a podosome-like structure (PLS), and promotes actin filament assembly during PLS invasion. Although the small GTPase Rac is involved in DPak3 activation and recruitment to the PLS, the kinase activity of DPak3 is required for effective PLS invasion. We propose a model whereby group I PAKs act downstream of Rac to organize the actin filaments within the PLS into a dense focus, which in turn promotes PLS invasion and fusion pore initiation during myoblast fusion.

Dock mediates Scar- and WASp-dependent actin polymerization through interaction with cell adhesion molecules in founder cells and fusion-competent myoblasts

The formation of the larval body wall musculature of Drosophila depends on the asymmetric fusion of two myoblast types, founder cells (FCs) and fusion-competent myoblasts (FCMs). Recent studies have established an essential function of Arp2/3-based actin polymerization during myoblast fusion, formation of a dense actin focus at the site of fusion in FCMs, and a thin sheath of actin in FCs and/or growing muscles. The formation of these actin structures depends on recognition and adhesion of myoblasts that is mediated by cell surface receptors of the immunoglobulin superfamily. However, the connection of the cell surface receptors with Arp2/3-based actin polymerization is poorly understood. To date only the SH2-SH3 adaptor protein Crk has been suggested to link cell adhesion with Arp2/3-based actin polymerization in FCMs. Here, we propose that the SH2-SH3 adaptor protein Dock, like Crk, links cell adhesion with actin polymerization. We show that Dock is expressed in FCs and FCMs and colocalizes with the cell adhesion proteins Sns and Duf at cell-cell contact points. Biochemical data in this study indicate that different domains of Dock are involved in binding the cell adhesion molecules Duf, Rst, Sns and Hbs. We emphasize the importance of these interactions by quantifying the enhanced myoblast fusion defects in duf dock, sns dock and hbs dock double mutants. Additionally, we show that Dock interacts biochemically and genetically with Drosophila Scar, Vrp1 and WASp. Based on these data, we propose that Dock links cell adhesion in FCs and FCMs with either Scar- or Vrp1-WASp-dependent Arp2/3 activation.

The actin regulator N-WASp is required for muscle-cell fusion in mice

A fundamental aspect of skeletal myogenesis involves extensive rounds of cell fusion, in which individual myoblasts are incorporated into growing muscle fibers. Here we demonstrate that N-WASp, a ubiquitous nucleation-promoting factor of branched microfilament arrays, is an essential contributor to skeletal muscle-cell fusion in developing mouse embryos. Analysis both in vivo and in primary satellite-cell cultures, shows that disruption of N-WASp function does not interfere with the program of skeletal myogenic differentiation, and does not affect myoblast motility, morphogenesis and attachment capacity. N-WASp-deficient myoblasts, however, fail to fuse. Furthermore, our analysis suggests that myoblast fusion requires N-WASp activity in both partners of a fusing myoblast pair. These findings reveal a specific role for N-WASp during mammalian myogenesis. WASp-family elements appear therefore to act as universal mediators of the myogenic cell-cell fusion mechanism underlying formation of functional muscle fibers, in both vertebrate and invertebrate species.

WIP remodeling actin behind the scenes: how WIP reshapes immune and other functions

Actin polymerization is a fundamental cellular process regulating immune cell functions and the immune response. The Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp) is an actin nucleation promoting factor, which is exclusively expressed in hematopoietic cells, where it plays a key regulatory role in cytoskeletal dynamics. WASp interacting protein (WIP) was first discovered as the binding partner of WASp, through the use of the yeast two hybrid system. WIP was later identified as a chaperone of WASp, necessary for its stability. Mutations occurring at the WASp homology 1 domain (WH1), which serves as the WIP binding site, were found to cause the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) and X-linked thrombocytopenia (XLT). WAS manifests as an immune deficiency characterized by eczema, thrombocytopenia, recurrent infections, and hematopoietic malignancies, demonstrating the importance of WIP for WASp complex formation and for a proper immune response. WIP deficiency was found to lead to different abnormalities in the activity of various lymphocytes, suggesting differential cell-dependent roles for WIP. Additionally, WIP deficiency causes cellular abnormalities not found in WASp-deficient cells, indicating that WIP fulfills roles beyond stabilizing WASp. Indeed, WIP was shown to interact with various binding partners, including the signaling proteins Nck, CrkL and cortactin. Recent studies have demonstrated that WIP also takes part in non immune cellular processes such as cancer invasion and metastasis, in addition to cell subversion by intracellular pathogens. Understanding of numerous functions of WIP can enhance our current understanding of activation and function of immune and other cell types.

Myoblast fusion: lessons from flies and mice

The fusion of myoblasts into multinucleate syncytia plays a fundamental role in muscle function, as it supports the formation of extended sarcomeric arrays, or myofibrils, within a large volume of cytoplasm. Principles learned from the study of myoblast fusion not only enhance our understanding of myogenesis, but also contribute to our perspectives on membrane fusion and cell-cell fusion in a wide array of model organisms and experimental systems. Recent studies have advanced our views of the cell biological processes and crucial proteins that drive myoblast fusion. Here, we provide an overview of myoblast fusion in three model systems that have contributed much to our understanding of these events: the Drosophila embryo; developing and regenerating mouse muscle; and cultured rodent muscle cells.