Vamana Couples Fat Signaling to the Hippo Pathway

Dachsous and Fat coordinately repress the Dachs-Dlish-Approximated complex to control growth

Two protocadherins, Dachsous (Ds) and Fat (Ft), regulate organ growth in Drosophila via the Hippo pathway. Ds and Ft bind heterotypically to regulate the abundance and subcellular localization of a 'core complex' consisting of Dachs, Dlish and Approximated. This complex localizes to the junctional cortex where it promotes growth by repressing the pathway kinase Warts. Ds is believed to promote growth by recruiting and stabilizing the core complex at the junctional cortex, while Ft represses growth by promoting degradation of core complex components. Here, we examine the functions of intracellular domains of Ds and Ft and their relationship to the core complex. While Ds promotes accumulation of the core complex proteins in cortical puncta, it is not required for core complex assembly. Indeed, the core complex assembles maximally in the absence of both Ds and Ft. Furthermore, while Ds promotes growth in the presence of Ft, it represses growth in the absence of Ft by removing the core complex from the junctional cortex. Ft similarly recruits core complex components, however it normally promotes their degradation. Our findings reveal that Ds and Ft constrain tissue growth by repressing the default 'on' state of the core complex.

Contributions of the Dachsous intracellular domain to Dachsous-Fat signaling

The protocadherins Fat and Dachsous regulate organ growth, shape, patterning, and planar cell polarity. Although Dachsous and Fat have been described as ligand and receptor, respectively, in a signal transduction pathway, there is also evidence for bidirectional signaling. Here we assess signaling downstream of Dachsous through analysis of its intracellular domain. Genomic deletions of conserved sequences within dachsous identified regions of the intracellular domain required for normal development. Deletion of the A motif increased Dachsous protein levels and decreased wing size. Deletion of the D motif decreased Dachsous levels at cell membranes, increased wing size, and disrupted wing, leg and hindgut patterning and planar cell polarity. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments established that the D motif is necessary and sufficient for association of Dachsous with four key partners: Lowfat, Dachs, Spiny-legs, and MyoID. Subdivision of the D motif identified distinct regions that are preferentially responsible for association with Lft versus Dachs. Our results identify motifs that are essential for Dachsous function and are consistent with the hypothesis that the key function of Dachsous is regulation of Fat.

The Interaction of Mechanics and the Hippo Pathway in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as an ideal system for studying the networks that control tissue development and homeostasis and, given the similarity of the pathways involved, controlled and uncontrolled growth in mammalian systems. The signaling pathways used in patterning the Drosophila wing disc are well known and result in the emergence of interaction of these pathways with the Hippo signaling pathway, which plays a central role in controlling cell proliferation and apoptosis. Mechanical effects are another major factor in the control of growth, but far less is known about how they exert their control. Herein, we develop a mathematical model that integrates the mechanical interactions between cells, which occur via adherens and tight junctions, with the intracellular actin network and the Hippo pathway so as to better understand cell-autonomous and non-autonomous control of growth in response to mechanical forces.

Expanded directly binds conserved regions of Fat to restrain growth via the Hippo pathway

The Hippo pathway is a conserved and critical regulator of tissue growth. The FERM protein Expanded is a key signaling hub that promotes activation of the Hippo pathway, thereby inhibiting the transcriptional co-activator Yorkie. Previous work identified the polarity determinant Crumbs as a primary regulator of Expanded. Here, we show that the giant cadherin Fat also regulates Expanded directly and independently of Crumbs. We show that direct binding between Expanded and a highly conserved region of the Fat cytoplasmic domain recruits Expanded to the apicolateral junctional zone and stabilizes Expanded. In vivo deletion of Expanded binding regions in Fat causes loss of apical Expanded and promotes tissue overgrowth. Unexpectedly, we find Fat can bind its ligand Dachsous via interactions of their cytoplasmic domains, in addition to the known extracellular interactions. Importantly, Expanded is stabilized by Fat independently of Dachsous binding. These data provide new mechanistic insights into how Fat regulates Expanded, and how Hippo signaling is regulated during organ growth.

Emerging Mechanisms of Growth and Patterning Regulation by Dachsous and Fat Protocadherins

Dachsous (Ds) and Fat are evolutionarily conserved cell adhesion molecules that play a critical role in development of multiple organ systems, where they coordinate tissue growth and morphogenesis. Much of our understanding of Ds-Fat signaling pathway comes from studies in Drosophila, where they initiate a signaling pathway that regulate growth by influencing Hippo signaling and morphogenesis by regulating Planar Cell Polarity (PCP). In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms by which Ds-Fat signaling pathway regulates these critical developmental processes. Further, we discuss the progress in our understanding about how they function in mammals.

The wing imaginal disc

The Drosophila wing imaginal disc is a tissue of undifferentiated cells that are precursors of the wing and most of the notum of the adult fly. The wing disc first forms during embryogenesis from a cluster of ∼30 cells located in the second thoracic segment, which invaginate to form a sac-like structure. They undergo extensive proliferation during larval stages to form a mature larval wing disc of ∼35,000 cells. During this time, distinct cell fates are assigned to different regions, and the wing disc develops a complex morphology. Finally, during pupal stages the wing disc undergoes morphogenetic processes and then differentiates to form the adult wing and notum. While the bulk of the wing disc comprises epithelial cells, it also includes neurons and glia, and is associated with tracheal cells and muscle precursor cells. The relative simplicity and accessibility of the wing disc, combined with the wealth of genetic tools available in Drosophila, have combined to make it a premier system for identifying genes and deciphering systems that play crucial roles in animal development. Studies in wing imaginal discs have made key contributions to many areas of biology, including tissue patterning, signal transduction, growth control, regeneration, planar cell polarity, morphogenesis, and tissue mechanics.

Searching beyond the streetlight: Neonicotinoid exposure alters the neurogenomic state of worker honey bees

Neonicotinoid insecticides have been implicated in honey bee declines, with many studies showing that sublethal exposure impacts bee behaviors such as foraging, learning, and memory. Despite the large number of ecotoxicological studies carried out to date, most focus on a handful of worker phenotypes leading to a "streetlight effect" where the a priori choice of phenotypes to measure may influence the results and conclusions arising from the studies. This bias can be overcome with the use of toxicological transcriptomics, where changes in gene expression can provide a more objective view of how pesticides alter animal traits. Here, we used RNA sequencing to examine the changes in neurogenomic states of nurse and forager honey bees that were naturally exposed to neonicotinoids in the field and artificially exposed to neonicotinoids in a controlled experiment. We found that neonicotinoid exposure influenced the neurogenomic state of foragers and nurses in different ways; foragers experienced shifts in expression of genes involved in cognition and development, while nurses experienced shifts in expression of genes involved in metabolism. Our study suggests that neonicotinoids influence nurse and forager bees in a different manner. We also found no to minimal overlap in the differentially expressed genes in our study and in previously published studies, which might help reconcile the seemingly contradictory results often reported in the neonicotinoid literature.

Homeostatic Regulation of ROS-Triggered Hippo-Yki Pathway via Autophagic Clearance of Ref(2)P/p62 in the Drosophila Intestine

Homeostasis of intestinal epithelia is maintained by coordination of the proper rate of regeneration by stem cell division with the rate of cell loss. Regeneration of host epithelia is normally quiescent upon colonization of commensal bacteria; however, the epithelia often develop dysplasia in a context-dependent manner, the cause and underlying mechanism of which remain unclear. Here, we show that in Drosophila intestine, autophagy lowers the sensitivity of differentiated enterocytes to reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are produced in response to commensal bacteria. We find that autophagy deficiency provokes ROS-dependent excessive regeneration and subsequent epithelial dysplasia and barrier dysfunction. Mechanistically, autophagic substrate Ref(2)P/p62, which co-localizes and physically interacts with Dachs, a Hippo signaling regulator, accumulates upon autophagy deficiency and thus inactivates Hippo signaling, resulting in stem cell over-proliferation non-cell autonomously. Our findings uncover a mechanism whereby suppression of undesirable regeneration by autophagy maintains long-term homeostasis of intestinal epithelia.

Casein kinase 1 family proteins promote Slimb-dependent Expanded degradation

Hippo signalling integrates diverse stimuli related to epithelial architecture to regulate tissue growth and cell fate decisions. The Hippo kinase cascade represses the growth-promoting transcription co-activator Yorkie. The FERM protein Expanded is one of the main upstream Hippo signalling regulators in Drosophila as it promotes Hippo kinase signalling and directly inhibits Yorkie. To fulfil its function, Expanded is recruited to the plasma membrane by the polarity protein Crumbs. However, Crumbs-mediated recruitment also promotes Expanded turnover via a phosphodegron-mediated interaction with a Slimb/β-TrCP SCF E3 ligase complex. Here, we show that the Casein Kinase 1 (CKI) family is required for Expanded phosphorylation. CKI expression promotes Expanded phosphorylation and interaction with Slimb/β-TrCP. Conversely, CKI depletion in S2 cells impairs Expanded degradation downstream of Crumbs. In wing imaginal discs, CKI loss leads to elevated Expanded and Crumbs levels. Thus, phospho-dependent Expanded turnover ensures a tight coupling of Hippo pathway activity to epithelial architecture.

Oriented Cell Divisions Are Not Required for Drosophila Wing Shape

Formation of correctly shaped organs is vital for normal function. The Drosophila wing has an elongated shape, which has been attributed in part to a preferential orientation of mitotic spindles along the proximal-distal axis [1, 2]. Orientation of mitotic spindles is believed to be a fundamental morphogenetic mechanism in multicellular organisms [3-6]. A contribution of spindle orientation to wing shape was inferred from observations that mutation of Dachsous-Fat pathway genes results in both rounder wings and loss of the normal proximal-distal bias in spindle orientation [1, 2, 7]. To directly evaluate the potential contribution of spindle orientation to wing morphogenesis, we assessed the consequences of loss of the Drosophila NuMA homolog Mud, which interacts with the dynein complex and has a conserved role in spindle orientation [8, 9]. Loss of Mud randomizes spindle orientation but does not alter wing shape. Analysis of growth and cell dynamics in developing discs and in ex vivo culture suggests that the absence of oriented cell divisions is compensated for by an increased contribution of cell rearrangements to wing shape. Our results indicate that oriented cell divisions are not required for wing morphogenesis, nor are they required for the morphogenesis of other Drosophila appendages. Moreover, our results suggest that normal organ shape is not achieved through locally specifying and then summing up individual cell behaviors, like oriented cell division. Instead, wing shape might be specified through tissue-wide stresses that dictate an overall arrangement of cells without specifying the individual cell behaviors needed to achieve it.

Early girl is a novel component of the Fat signaling pathway

The Drosophila protocadherins Dachsous and Fat regulate growth and tissue polarity by modulating the levels, membrane localization and polarity of the atypical myosin Dachs. Localization to the apical junctional membrane is critical for Dachs function, and the adapter protein Vamana/Dlish and palmitoyl transferase Approximated are required for Dachs membrane localization. However, how Dachs levels are regulated is poorly understood. Here we identify the early girl gene as playing an essential role in Fat signaling by limiting the levels of Dachs protein. early girl mutants display overgrowth of the wings and reduced cross vein spacing, hallmark features of mutations affecting Fat signaling. Genetic experiments reveal that it functions in parallel with Fat to regulate Dachs. early girl encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase, physically interacts with Dachs, and regulates its protein stability. Concomitant loss of early girl and approximated results in accumulation of Dachs and Vamana in cytoplasmic punctae, suggesting that it also regulates their trafficking to the apical membrane. Our findings establish a crucial role for early girl in Fat signaling, involving regulation of Dachs and Vamana, two key downstream effectors of this pathway.

During development, organs grow to achieve a consistent final size. The evolutionarily conserved Hippo signaling network plays a central role in organ size control, and when dysregulated can be associated with cancer and other diseases. Fat signaling is one of several upstream pathways that impinge on Hippo signaling to regulate organ growth. We describe here identification of the Drosophila early girl gene as a new component of the Fat signaling pathway. We show that Early girl controls Fat signaling by regulating the levels of the Dachs protein. However Early girl differs from other Fat signaling regulators in that it doesn’t influence planar cell polarity or control the polarity of Dachs localization. early girl encodes a conserved protein that is predicted to influence protein stability, and it can physically associate with Dachs. We also discovered that Early girl acts together with another protein, called Approximated, to regulate the sub-cellular localization of Dachs and a Dachs-interacting protein called Vamana. Altogether, our observations establish Early girl as an essential component of Fat signaling that acts to regulate the levels and localization of Dachs and Vamana.

Fat-regulated adaptor protein Dlish binds the growth suppressor Expanded and controls its stability and ubiquitination

To regulate the growth and size of organs, cells can use information from their neighbors to modify intracellular mediators of cell proliferation. The intracellular Hippo pathway is a widely utilized nexus for growth control in animals, but its regulation by extracellular signals is not fully understood. We here identify a pathway that regulates organ size in Drosophila, triggered by the transmembrane receptor, the giant protocadherin Fat. We show that the Fat-regulated SH3 domain adaptor protein Dlish binds to and reduces the stability of the growth suppressor Expanded, a known regulator of the Hippo pathway. The destabilization of Expanded by Dlish works in parallel to a previously established pathway in which Dlish increases levels of the growth-stimulating protein Dachs.

The Drosophila protocadherin Fat controls organ size through the Hippo pathway, but the biochemical links to the Hippo pathway components are still poorly defined. We previously identified Dlish, an SH3 domain protein that physically interacts with Fat and the type XX myosin Dachs, and showed that Fat’s regulation of Dlish levels and activity helps limit Dachs-mediated inhibition of Hippo pathway activity. We here characterize a parallel growth control pathway downstream of Fat and Dlish. Using immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry to search for Dlish partners, we find that Dlish binds the FERM domain growth repressor Expanded (Ex); Dlish SH3 domains directly bind sites in the Ex C terminus. We further show that, in vivo, Dlish reduces the subapical accumulation of Ex, and that loss of Dlish blocks the destabilization of Ex caused by loss of Fat. Moreover, Dlish can bind the F-box E3 ubiquitin ligase Slimb and promote Slimb-mediated ubiquitination of Expanded in vitro. Both the in vitro and in vivo effects of Dlish on Ex require Slimb, strongly suggesting that Dlish destabilizes Ex by helping recruit Slimb-containing E3 ubiquitin ligase complexes to Ex.

Localization of Hippo Signaling Components in Drosophila by Fluorescence and Immunofluorescence

Visualization of in vivo protein levels and localization is essential to analysis and elucidation of Hippo signaling mechanisms and its roles in diverse tissues. This is best done by imaging proteins using fluorescent labels. Fluorescent labeling of a protein can be achieved by direct conjugation to an intrinsically fluorescent protein, like GFP, or by use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent dyes. Immunofluorescence imaging in Drosophila typically begins with dissection and fixation of a sample tissue, followed by a series of washes and incubations with primary antibodies, directed against proteins of interest, and dye-labeled secondary antibodies, directed against the primary antibodies. This may be followed by fluorescent dyes that label cellular components, such as DNA-labeling dyes to mark nuclei. After staining and washing is completed, samples are placed in a mounting media, transferred to a microscope slide, and imaged on a confocal microscope.

The Hippo Signaling Network and Its Biological Functions

Hippo signaling is an evolutionarily conserved network that has a central role in regulating cell proliferation and cell fate to control organ growth and regeneration. It promotes activation of the LATS kinases, which control gene expression by inhibiting the activity of the transcriptional coactivator proteins YAP and TAZ in mammals and Yorkie in Drosophila. Diverse upstream inputs, including both biochemical cues and biomechanical cues, regulate Hippo signaling and enable it to have a key role as a sensor of cells' physical environment and an integrator of growth control signals. Several components of this pathway localize to cell-cell junctions and contribute to regulation of Hippo signaling by cell polarity, cell contacts, and the cytoskeleton. Downregulation of Hippo signaling promotes uncontrolled cell proliferation, impairs differentiation, and is associated with cancer. We review the current understanding of Hippo signaling and highlight progress in the elucidation of its regulatory mechanisms and biological functions.

Upstream paths for Hippo signaling in Drosophila organ development

Organ growth is fundamental to animal development. One of major mechanisms for growth control is mediated by the conserved Hippo signaling pathway initially identified in Drosophila. The core of this pathway in Drosophila consists of a cascade of protein kinases Hippo and Warts that negatively regulate transcriptional coactivator Yorkie (Yki). Activation of Yki promotes cell survival and proliferation to induce organ growth. A key issue in Hippo signaling is to understand how core kinase cascade is activated. Activation of Hippo kinase cascade is regulated in the upstream by at least two transmembrane proteins Crumbs and Fat that act in parallel. These membrane proteins interact with additional factors such as FERM-domain proteins Expanded and Merlin to modulate subcellular localization and function of the Hippo kinase cascade. Hippo signaling is also influenced by cytoskeletal networks and cell tension in epithelia of developing organs. These upstream events in the regulation of Hippo signaling are only partially understood. This review focuses on our current understanding of some upstream processes involved in Hippo signaling in developing Drosophila organs.

Atypical Cadherin Dachsous1b Interacts with Ttc28 and Aurora B to Control Microtubule Dynamics in Embryonic Cleavages

Atypical cadherin Dachsous (Dchs) is a conserved regulator of planar cell polarity, morphogenesis, and tissue growth during animal development. Dchs functions in part by regulating microtubules by unknown molecular mechanisms. Here we show that maternal zygotic (MZ) dchs1b zebrafish mutants exhibit cleavage furrow progression defects and impaired midzone microtubule assembly associated with decreased microtubule turnover. Mechanistically, Dchs1b interacts via a conserved motif in its intracellular domain with the tetratricopeptide motifs of Ttc28 and regulates its subcellular distribution. Excess Ttc28 impairs cleavages and decreases microtubule turnover, while ttc28 inactivation increases turnover. Moreover, ttc28 deficiency in dchs1b mutants suppresses the microtubule dynamics and midzone microtubule assembly defects. Dchs1b also binds to Aurora B, a known regulator of cleavages and microtubules. Embryonic cleavages in MZdchs1b mutants exhibit increased, and in MZttc28 mutants decreased, sensitivity to Aurora B inhibition. Thus, Dchs1b regulates microtubule dynamics and embryonic cleavages by interacting with Ttc28 and Aurora B.

Cell Junctions in Hippo Signaling

The Hippo signal transduction pathway is an important regulator of organ growth and cell differentiation, and its deregulation contributes to the development of cancer. The activity of the Hippo pathway is strongly dependent on cell junctions, cellular architecture, and the mechanical properties of the microenvironment. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of how cell junctions transduce signals from the microenvironment and control the activity of the Hippo pathway. We also discuss how these mechanisms may control organ growth during development and regeneration, and how defects in them deregulate Hippo signaling in cancer cells.

Big roles for Fat cadherins

To create an intricately patterned and reproducibly sized and shaped organ, many cellular processes must be tightly regulated. Cell elongation, migration, metabolism, proliferation rates, cell-cell adhesion, planar polarization and junctional contractions all must be coordinated in time and space. Remarkably, a pair of extremely large cell adhesion molecules called Fat (Ft) and Dachsous (Ds), acting largely as a ligand-receptor system, regulate, and likely coordinate, these many diverse processes. Here we describe recent exciting progress on how the Ds-Ft pathway controls these diverse processes, and highlight a few of the many questions remaining as to how these enormous cell adhesion molecules regulate development.

Configuring a robust nervous system with Fat cadherins

Atypical Fat cadherins represent a small but versatile group of signaling molecules that influence proliferation and tissue polarity. With huge extracellular domains and intracellular domains harboring many independent protein interaction sites, Fat cadherins are poised to translate local cell adhesion events into a variety of cell behaviors. The need for such global coordination is particularly prominent in the nervous system, where millions of morphologically diverse neurons are organized into functional networks. As we learn more about their biological functions and molecular properties, increasing evidence suggests that Fat cadherins mediate contact-induced changes that ultimately impose a structure to developing neuronal circuits.

Tissue growth and tumorigenesis in Drosophila: cell polarity and the Hippo pathway

Cell polarity regulation is critical for defining membrane domains required for the establishment and maintenance of the apical-basal axis in epithelial cells (apico-basal polarity), asymmetric cell divisions, planar organization of tissues (planar cell polarity), and the formation of the front-rear axis in cell migration (front-rear polarity). In the vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster, cell polarity regulators also interact with the Hippo tissue growth control signaling pathway. In this review we survey the recent Drosophila literature linking cell polarity regulators with the Hippo pathway in epithelial tissue growth, neural stem cell asymmetric divisions and in cell migration in physiological and tumorigenic settings.