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Pedre B. A guide to genetically-encoded redox biosensors: State of the art and opportunities. Arch Biochem Biophys 2024; 758:110067. [PMID: 38908743 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2024.110067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Genetically-encoded redox biosensors have become invaluable tools for monitoring cellular redox processes with high spatiotemporal resolution, coupling the presence of the redox-active analyte with a change in fluorescence signal that can be easily recorded. This review summarizes the available fluorescence recording methods and presents an in-depth classification of the redox biosensors, organized by the analytes they respond to. In addition to the fluorescent protein-based architectures, this review also describes the recent advances on fluorescent, chemigenetic-based redox biosensors and other emerging chemigenetic strategies. This review examines how these biosensors are designed, the biosensors sensing mechanism, and their practical advantages and disadvantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandán Pedre
- Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology Unit, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, Belgium.
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2
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Kostyuk AI, Rapota DD, Morozova KI, Fedotova AA, Jappy D, Semyanov AV, Belousov VV, Brazhe NA, Bilan DS. Modern optical approaches in redox biology: Genetically encoded sensors and Raman spectroscopy. Free Radic Biol Med 2024; 217:68-115. [PMID: 38508405 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2024.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
The objective of the current review is to summarize the current state of optical methods in redox biology. It consists of two parts, the first is dedicated to genetically encoded fluorescent indicators and the second to Raman spectroscopy. In the first part, we provide a detailed classification of the currently available redox biosensors based on their target analytes. We thoroughly discuss the main architecture types of these proteins, the underlying engineering strategies for their development, the biochemical properties of existing tools and their advantages and disadvantages from a practical point of view. Particular attention is paid to fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy as a possible readout technique, since it is less prone to certain artifacts than traditional intensiometric measurements. In the second part, the characteristic Raman peaks of the most important redox intermediates are listed, and examples of how this knowledge can be implemented in biological studies are given. This part covers such fields as estimation of the redox states and concentrations of Fe-S clusters, cytochromes, other heme-containing proteins, oxidative derivatives of thiols, lipids, and nucleotides. Finally, we touch on the issue of multiparameter imaging, in which biosensors are combined with other visualization methods for simultaneous assessment of several cellular parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander I Kostyuk
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997, Moscow, Russia
| | - Diana D Rapota
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Kseniia I Morozova
- Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - Anna A Fedotova
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - David Jappy
- Federal Center of Brain Research and Neurotechnologies, Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Alexey V Semyanov
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia; Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, 119435, Russia; College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, 314001, China
| | - Vsevolod V Belousov
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997, Moscow, Russia; Federal Center of Brain Research and Neurotechnologies, Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Life Improvement by Future Technologies (LIFT) Center, Skolkovo, Moscow, 143025, Russia
| | - Nadezda A Brazhe
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia.
| | - Dmitry S Bilan
- M.M. Shemyakin and Yu.A. Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia; Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997, Moscow, Russia.
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3
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Onraet T, Zuryn S. C. elegans as a model to study mitochondrial biology and disease. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2024; 154:48-58. [PMID: 37149409 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria perform a myriad of essential functions that ensure organismal homeostasis, including maintaining bioenergetic capacity, sensing and signalling the presence of pathogenic threats, and determining cell fate. Their function is highly dependent on mitochondrial quality control and the appropriate regulation of mitochondrial size, shape, and distribution during an entire lifetime, as well as their inheritance across generations. The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans has emerged as an ideal model organism through which to study mitochondria. The remarkable conservation of mitochondrial biology has allowed C. elegans researchers to investigate complex processes that are challenging to study in higher organisms. In this review, we explore the key recent contributions of C. elegans to mitochondrial biology through the lens of mitochondrial dynamics, organellar removal, and mitochondrial inheritance, as well as their involvement in immune responses, various types of stress, and transgenerational signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Onraet
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Steven Zuryn
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia.
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4
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Bhatnagar A, Nestler M, Gross P, Kramar M, Leaver M, Voigt A, Grill SW. Axis convergence in C. elegans embryos. Curr Biol 2023; 33:5096-5108.e15. [PMID: 37979577 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Embryos develop in a surrounding that guides key aspects of their development. For example, the anteroposterior (AP) body axis is always aligned with the geometric long axis of the surrounding eggshell in fruit flies and worms. The mechanisms that ensure convergence of the AP axis with the long axis of the eggshell remain unresolved. We investigate axis convergence in early C. elegans development, where the nascent AP axis, when misaligned, actively re-aligns to converge with the long axis of the egg. We identify two physical mechanisms that underlie axis convergence. First, bulk cytoplasmic flows, driven by actomyosin cortical flows, can directly reposition the AP axis. Second, active forces generated within the pseudocleavage furrow, a transient actomyosin structure similar to a contractile ring, can drive a mechanical re-orientation such that it becomes positioned perpendicular to the long axis of the egg. This in turn ensures AP axis convergence. Numerical simulations, together with experiments that either abolish the pseudocleavage furrow or change the shape of the egg, demonstrate that the pseudocleavage-furrow-dependent mechanism is a major driver of axis convergence. We conclude that active force generation within the actomyosin cortical layer drives axis convergence in the early nematode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archit Bhatnagar
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrase 108, Dresden 01037, Germany
| | - Michael Nestler
- Institute of Scientific Computing, Technische Universitӓt Dresden, Zellescher Weg 25, Dresden 01217, Germany
| | - Peter Gross
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrase 108, Dresden 01037, Germany; Biotechnology Center (BIOTEC), Technische Universitӓt Dresden, Tatzberg 47/49, Dresden 01307, Germany
| | - Mirna Kramar
- Biotechnology Center (BIOTEC), Technische Universitӓt Dresden, Tatzberg 47/49, Dresden 01307, Germany
| | - Mark Leaver
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrase 108, Dresden 01037, Germany
| | - Axel Voigt
- Institute of Scientific Computing, Technische Universitӓt Dresden, Zellescher Weg 25, Dresden 01217, Germany; Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universitӓt Dresden, Arnoldstrase 18, Dresden 01307, Germany; Center for Systems Biology Dresden, Pfotenhauerstrase 108, Dresden 01037, Germany.
| | - Stephan W Grill
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrase 108, Dresden 01037, Germany; Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universitӓt Dresden, Arnoldstrase 18, Dresden 01307, Germany; Center for Systems Biology Dresden, Pfotenhauerstrase 108, Dresden 01037, Germany.
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5
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Kritsiligkou P, Bosch K, Shen TK, Meurer M, Knop M, Dick TP. Proteome-wide tagging with an H 2O 2 biosensor reveals highly localized and dynamic redox microenvironments. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2314043120. [PMID: 37991942 PMCID: PMC10691247 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2314043120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) sensing and signaling involves the reversible oxidation of particular thiols on particular proteins to modulate protein function in a dynamic manner. H2O2 can be generated from various intracellular sources, but their identities and relative contributions are often unknown. To identify endogenous "hotspots" of H2O2 generation on the scale of individual proteins and protein complexes, we generated a yeast library in which the H2O2 sensor HyPer7 was fused to the C-terminus of all protein-coding open reading frames (ORFs). We also generated a control library in which a redox-insensitive mutant of HyPer7 (SypHer7) was fused to all ORFs. Both libraries were screened side-by-side to identify proteins located within H2O2-generating environments. Screening under a variety of different metabolic conditions revealed dynamic changes in H2O2 availability highly specific to individual proteins and protein complexes. These findings suggest that intracellular H2O2 generation is much more localized and functionally differentiated than previously recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paraskevi Kritsiligkou
- Division of Redox Regulation, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance69120Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Katharina Bosch
- Division of Redox Regulation, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance69120Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tzu Keng Shen
- Division of Redox Regulation, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance69120Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Matthias Meurer
- Center for Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
- Research Group Cell Morphogenesis and Signal Transduction, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Knop
- Center for Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
- Research Group Cell Morphogenesis and Signal Transduction, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tobias P. Dick
- Division of Redox Regulation, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance69120Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
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6
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den Toom WTF, van Soest DMK, Polderman PE, van Triest MH, Bruurs LJM, De Henau S, Burgering BMT, Dansen TB. Oxygen-consumption based quantification of chemogenetic H 2O 2 production in live human cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2023; 206:134-142. [PMID: 37392950 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023]
Abstract
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in the form of H2O2 can act both as physiological signaling molecules as well as damaging agents, depending on their concentration and localization. The downstream biological effects of H2O2 were often studied making use of exogenously added H2O2, generally as a bolus and at supraphysiological levels. But this does not mimic the continuous, low levels of intracellular H2O2 production by for instance mitochondrial respiration. The enzyme d-Amino Acid Oxidase (DAAO) catalyzes H2O2 formation using d-amino acids, which are absent from culture media, as a substrate. Ectopic expression of DAAO has recently been used in several studies to produce inducible and titratable intracellular H2O2. However, a method to directly quantify the amount of H2O2 produced by DAAO has been lacking, making it difficult to assess whether observed phenotypes are the result of physiological or artificially high levels of H2O2. Here we describe a simple assay to directly quantify DAAO activity by measuring the oxygen consumed during H2O2 production. The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of DAAO can directly be compared to the basal mitochondrial respiration in the same assay, to estimate whether the ensuing level of H2O2 production is within the range of physiological mitochondrial ROS production. In the tested monoclonal RPE1-hTERT cells, addition of 5 mM d-Ala to the culture media amounts to a DAAO-dependent OCR that surpasses ∼5% of the OCR that stems from basal mitochondrial respiration and hence produces supra-physiological levels of H2O2. We show that the assay can also be used to select clones that express differentially localized DAAO with the same absolute level of H2O2 production to be able to discriminate the effects of H2O2 production at different subcellular locations from differences in total oxidative burden. This method therefore greatly improves the interpretation and applicability of DAAO-based models, thereby moving the redox biology field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wytze T F den Toom
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Daan M K van Soest
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Paulien E Polderman
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Miranda H van Triest
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lucas J M Bruurs
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Sasha De Henau
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Boudewijn M T Burgering
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Jaarbeursplein 6, 3521 AL, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Tobias B Dansen
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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7
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Oda S, Sato-Ebine E, Nakamura A, Kimura KD, Aoki K. Optical Control of Cell Signaling with Red/Far-Red Light-Responsive Optogenetic Tools in Caenorhabditis elegans. ACS Synth Biol 2023; 12:700-708. [PMID: 36802521 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.2c00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetic techniques have been intensively applied to the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to investigate its neural functions. However, as most of these optogenetics are responsive to blue light and the animal exhibits avoidance behavior to blue light, the application of optogenetic tools responsive to longer wavelength light has been eagerly anticipated. In this study, we report the implementation in C. elegans of a phytochrome-based optogenetic tool that responds to red/near-infrared light and manipulates cell signaling. We first introduced the SynPCB system, which enabled us to synthesize phycocyanobilin (PCB), a chromophore for phytochrome, and confirmed the biosynthesis of PCB in neurons, muscles, and intestinal cells. We further confirmed that the amount of PCBs synthesized by the SynPCB system was sufficient for photoswitching of phytochrome B (PhyB)-phytochrome interacting factor 3 (PIF3). In addition, optogenetic elevation of intracellular Ca2+ levels in intestinal cells induced a defecation motor program. These SynPCB system and phytochrome-based optogenetic techniques would be of great value in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying C. elegans behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigekazu Oda
- Division of Quantitative Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Emi Sato-Ebine
- Division of Quantitative Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Akinobu Nakamura
- Quantitative Biology Research Group, Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Koutarou D Kimura
- Graduate School of Science, Nagoya City University, Nagoya 467-8501, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Aoki
- Division of Quantitative Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan.,Quantitative Biology Research Group, Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan.,Department of Basic Biology, Faculty of Life Science, SOKENDAI (Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
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8
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Hermeling JCW, Herholz M, Baumann L, Cores EC, Zečić A, Hoppe T, Riemer J, Trifunovic A. Mitochondria-originated redox signalling regulates KLF-1 to promote longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans. Redox Biol 2022; 58:102533. [PMID: 36442394 PMCID: PMC9709155 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2022.102533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternations of redox metabolism have been associated with the extension of lifespan in roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, caused by moderate mitochondrial dysfunction, although the underlying signalling cascades are largely unknown. Previously, we identified transcriptional factor Krüppel-like factor-1 (KLF-1) as the main regulator of cytoprotective longevity-assurance pathways in the C. elegans long-lived mitochondrial mutants. Here, we show that KLF-1 translocation to the nucleus and the activation of the signalling cascade is dependent on the mitochondria-derived hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) produced during late developmental phases where aerobic respiration and somatic mitochondrial biogenesis peak. We further show that mitochondrial-inducible superoxide dismutase-3 (SOD-3), together with voltage-dependent anion channel-1 (VDAC-1), is required for the life-promoting H2O2 signalling that is further regulated by peroxiredoxin-3 (PRDX-3). Increased H2O2 release in the cytoplasm activates the p38 MAPK signalling cascade that induces KLF-1 translocation to the nucleus and the activation of transcription of C. elegans longevity-promoting genes, including cytoprotective cytochrome P450 oxidases. Taken together, our results underline the importance of redox-regulated signalling as the key regulator of longevity-inducing pathways in C. elegans, and position precisely timed mitochondria-derived H2O2 in the middle of it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes CW Hermeling
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany
| | - Marija Herholz
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany
| | - Linda Baumann
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany
| | - Estela Cepeda Cores
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Zečić
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany
| | - Thorsten Hoppe
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), Cologne, D-50931, Germany,Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50674, Germany
| | - Jan Riemer
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Trifunovic
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Ageing-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Germany,Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Ageing, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, D-50931, Germany,Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), Cologne, D-50931, Germany,Corresponding author. CECAD Research CenterUniversity of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, Cologne, D-50931, Germany.
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9
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Hawdon A, Aberkane A, Zenker J. Microtubule-dependent subcellular organisation of pluripotent cells. Development 2021; 148:272646. [PMID: 34710215 DOI: 10.1242/dev.199909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
With the advancement of cutting-edge live imaging technologies, microtubule remodelling has evolved as an integral regulator for the establishment of distinct differentiated cells. However, despite their fundamental role in cell structure and function, microtubules have received less attention when unravelling the regulatory circuitry of pluripotency. Here, we summarise the role of microtubule organisation and microtubule-dependent events required for the formation of pluripotent cells in vivo by deciphering the process of early embryogenesis: from fertilisation to blastocyst. Furthermore, we highlight current advances in elucidating the significance of specific microtubule arrays in in vitro culture systems of pluripotent stem cells and how the microtubule cytoskeleton serves as a highway for the precise intracellular movement of organelles. This Review provides an informed understanding of the intrinsic role of subcellular architecture of pluripotent cells and accentuates their regenerative potential in combination with innovative light-inducible microtubule techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azelle Hawdon
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Asma Aberkane
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Jennifer Zenker
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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10
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Tavernier N, Sicheri F, Pintard L. Aurora A kinase activation: Different means to different ends. J Cell Biol 2021; 220:212490. [PMID: 34287649 PMCID: PMC8298103 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202106128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Aurora A is a serine/threonine kinase essential for mitotic entry and spindle assembly. Recent molecular studies have revealed the existence of multiple, distinct mechanisms of Aurora A activation, each occurring at specific subcellular locations, optimized for cellular context, and primed by signaling events including phosphorylation and oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Tavernier
- Programme équipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer - Université de Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Jacques Monod, Paris, France
| | - Frank Sicheri
- Centre for Systems Biology, Lunenfeld Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lionel Pintard
- Programme équipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer - Université de Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Jacques Monod, Paris, France
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11
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Dansen TB, De Henau S. Modulating organelle distribution using light-inducible heterodimerization in C. elegans. STAR Protoc 2021; 2:100273. [PMID: 33490987 PMCID: PMC7811173 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2020.100273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The relative positioning of organelles underlies fundamental cellular processes, including signaling, polarization, and cellular growth. Here, we describe the usage of a light-dependent heterodimerization system, LOVpep-ePDZ, to alter organelle positioning locally and reversibly in order to study the functional consequences of organelle positioning. The protocol gives details on how to accomplish expression of fusion proteins encoding this system, describes the imaging parameters to achieve subcellular activation in C. elegans, and may be adapted for use in other model systems. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to De Henau et al. (2020).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias B. Dansen
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Molecular Cancer Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Sasha De Henau
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Molecular Cancer Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
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12
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Delattre M, Goehring NW. The first steps in the life of a worm: Themes and variations in asymmetric division in C. elegans and other nematodes. Curr Top Dev Biol 2021; 144:269-308. [PMID: 33992156 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Starting with Boveri in the 1870s, microscopic investigation of early embryogenesis in a broad swath of nematode species revealed the central role of asymmetric cell division in embryonic axis specification, blastomere positioning, and cell fate specification. Notably, across the class Chromadorea, a conserved theme emerges-asymmetry is first established in the zygote and specifies its asymmetric division, giving rise to an anterior somatic daughter cell and a posterior germline daughter cell. Beginning in the 1980s, the emergence of Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism saw the advent of genetic tools that enabled rapid progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying asymmetric division, in many cases defining key paradigms that turn out to regulate asymmetric division in a wide range of systems. Yet, the consequence of this focus on C. elegans came at the expense of exploring the extant diversity of developmental variation exhibited across nematode species. Given the resurgent interest in evolutionary studies facilitated in part by new tools, here we revisit the diversity in this asymmetric first division, juxtaposing molecular insight into mechanisms of symmetry-breaking, spindle positioning and fate specification, with a consideration of plasticity and variability within and between species. In the process, we hope to highlight questions of evolutionary forces and molecular variation that may have shaped the extant diversity of developmental mechanisms observed across Nematoda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Delattre
- Laboratory of Biology and Modeling of the Cell, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Inserm, UCBL, Lyon, France.
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13
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Kim AJ, Griffin EE. PLK-1 Regulation of Asymmetric Cell Division in the Early C. elegans Embryo. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:632253. [PMID: 33553173 PMCID: PMC7859328 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.632253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
PLK1 is a conserved mitotic kinase that is essential for the entry into and progression through mitosis. In addition to its canonical mitotic functions, recent studies have characterized a critical role for PLK-1 in regulating the polarization and asymmetric division of the one-cell C. elegans embryo. Prior to cell division, PLK-1 regulates both the polarization of the PAR proteins at the cell cortex and the segregation of cell fate determinants in the cytoplasm. Following cell division, PLK-1 is preferentially inherited to one daughter cell where it acts to regulate the timing of centrosome separation and cell division. PLK1 also regulates cell polarity in asymmetrically dividing Drosophila neuroblasts and during mammalian planar cell polarity, suggesting it may act broadly to connect cell polarity and cell cycle mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia J Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Erik E Griffin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
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14
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Gan WJ, Motegi F. Mechanochemical Control of Symmetry Breaking in the Caenorhabditis elegans Zygote. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:619869. [PMID: 33537308 PMCID: PMC7848089 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.619869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell polarity is the asymmetric organization of cellular components along defined axes. A key requirement for polarization is the ability of the cell to break symmetry and achieve a spatially biased organization. Despite different triggering cues in various systems, symmetry breaking (SB) usually relies on mechanochemical modulation of the actin cytoskeleton, which allows for advected movement and reorganization of cellular components. Here, the mechanisms underlying SB in Caenorhabditis elegans zygote, one of the most popular models to study cell polarity, are reviewed. A zygote initiates SB through the centrosome, which modulates mechanics of the cell cortex to establish advective flow of cortical proteins including the actin cytoskeleton and partitioning defective (PAR) proteins. The chemical signaling underlying centrosomal control of the Aurora A kinase–mediated cascade to convert the organization of the contractile actomyosin network from an apolar to polar state is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Jun Gan
- Temasek Life-Sciences Laboratory, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Fumio Motegi
- Temasek Life-Sciences Laboratory, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Institute of Genetic Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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15
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Rubio-Peña K, Al Rawi S, Husson F, Lam F, Merlet J, Galy V. Mitophagy of polarized sperm-derived mitochondria after fertilization. iScience 2020; 24:102029. [PMID: 33506190 PMCID: PMC7814193 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.102029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of membrane potential of sperm mitochondria has been regarded as the first step preceding mitophagy degradation after their entry into the C. elegans oocyte at fertilization. This is in line with the classical view of mitophagy of defective or abnormal mitochondria and could serve as a recognition signal for their specific and quick autophagy degradation. Here, using TMRE (tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester) and live imaging we show that this is not the case. Instead, sperm inherited mitochondria show a stable labeling with TMRE before and at the time of autophagosomes formation. Interestingly, this labeling remains in late-stage-embryos of autophagy-defective-mutants suggesting that the loss of membrane potential occurs upon the entry of the mitochondria into the autophagy pathway. These stabilized and still polarized sperm mitochondria remain distinct but associated with the maternal-derived mitochondrial network suggesting a mechanism that prevents their fusion and represents an efficient additional protective system against fertilization-induced heteroplasmy. Oocyte-derived mitochondria become tubular only during the first zygotic division Sperm mitochondria can not fuse but associate with the oocyte-derived mitochondria Sperm mitochondria are still polarized when engulfed for autophagy degradation
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Affiliation(s)
- Karinna Rubio-Peña
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, IBPS, Developmental Biology Laboratory, UMR7622, Paris, France
| | - Sara Al Rawi
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, IBPS, Developmental Biology Laboratory, UMR7622, Paris, France
| | - Fanny Husson
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, IBPS, Developmental Biology Laboratory, UMR7622, Paris, France
| | - France Lam
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, IBPS, IBPS Imaging Facility, FRE3631 Paris, France
| | - Jorge Merlet
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, IBPS, Developmental Biology Laboratory, UMR7622, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Galy
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, IBPS, Developmental Biology Laboratory, UMR7622, Paris, France
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16
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Stimulating Embryo Polarization with Mitochondrial Peroxide. Dev Cell 2020; 53:261-262. [PMID: 32369741 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Centrosomes break symmetry in the C. elegans one-cell embryo, triggering its anterior-posterior polarization and initiating segregation of somatic and germline cell lineages. In this issue of Developmental Cell, De Henau et al. show that mitochondria also contribute to symmetry breaking by producing hydrogen peroxide at the egg's future posterior pole.
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17
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Kostyuk AI, Panova AS, Kokova AD, Kotova DA, Maltsev DI, Podgorny OV, Belousov VV, Bilan DS. In Vivo Imaging with Genetically Encoded Redox Biosensors. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E8164. [PMID: 33142884 PMCID: PMC7662651 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Redox reactions are of high fundamental and practical interest since they are involved in both normal physiology and the pathogenesis of various diseases. However, this area of research has always been a relatively problematic field in the context of analytical approaches, mostly because of the unstable nature of the compounds that are measured. Genetically encoded sensors allow for the registration of highly reactive molecules in real-time mode and, therefore, they began a new era in redox biology. Their strongest points manifest most brightly in in vivo experiments and pave the way for the non-invasive investigation of biochemical pathways that proceed in organisms from different systematic groups. In the first part of the review, we briefly describe the redox sensors that were used in vivo as well as summarize the model systems to which they were applied. Next, we thoroughly discuss the biological results obtained in these studies in regard to animals, plants, as well as unicellular eukaryotes and prokaryotes. We hope that this work reflects the amazing power of this technology and can serve as a useful guide for biologists and chemists who work in the field of redox processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander I. Kostyuk
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Anastasiya S. Panova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Aleksandra D. Kokova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Daria A. Kotova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitry I. Maltsev
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Federal Center for Cerebrovascular Pathology and Stroke, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg V. Podgorny
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vsevolod V. Belousov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Federal Center for Cerebrovascular Pathology and Stroke, 117997 Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Cardiovascular Physiology, Georg August University Göttingen, D-37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dmitry S. Bilan
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (A.I.K.); (A.S.P.); (A.D.K.); (D.A.K.); (D.I.M.); (O.V.P.); (V.V.B.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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18
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Gubieda AG, Packer JR, Squires I, Martin J, Rodriguez J. Going with the flow: insights from Caenorhabditis elegans zygote polarization. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190555. [PMID: 32829680 PMCID: PMC7482210 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell polarity is the asymmetric distribution of cellular components along a defined axis. Polarity relies on complex signalling networks between conserved patterning proteins, including the PAR (partitioning defective) proteins, which become segregated in response to upstream symmetry breaking cues. Although the mechanisms that drive the asymmetric localization of these proteins are dependent upon cell type and context, in many cases the regulation of actomyosin cytoskeleton dynamics is central to the transport, recruitment and/or stabilization of these polarity effectors into defined subcellular domains. The transport or advection of PAR proteins by an actomyosin flow was first observed in the Caenorhabditis elegans zygote more than a decade ago. Since then a multifaceted approach, using molecular methods, high-throughput screens, and biophysical and computational models, has revealed further aspects of this flow and how polarity regulators respond to and modulate it. Here, we review recent findings on the interplay between actomyosin flow and the PAR patterning networks in the polarization of the C. elegans zygote. We also discuss how these discoveries and developed methods are shaping our understanding of other flow-dependent polarizing systems. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Contemporary morphogenesis'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Josana Rodriguez
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
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19
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Cordeiro IR, Tanaka M. Environmental Oxygen is a Key Modulator of Development and Evolution: From Molecules to Ecology. Bioessays 2020; 42:e2000025. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.202000025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Rosenburg Cordeiro
- Department of Life Science and Technology Tokyo Institute of Technology B‐17, 4259 Nagatsuta‐cho, Midori‐ku Yokohama 226‐8501 Japan
| | - Mikiko Tanaka
- Department of Life Science and Technology Tokyo Institute of Technology B‐17, 4259 Nagatsuta‐cho, Midori‐ku Yokohama 226‐8501 Japan
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20
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Kimata Y, Higaki T, Kurihara D, Ando N, Matsumoto H, Higashiyama T, Ueda M. Mitochondrial dynamics and segregation during the asymmetric division of Arabidopsis zygotes. QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 1:e3. [PMID: 37077329 PMCID: PMC10095797 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2020.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The zygote is the first cell of a multicellular organism. In most angiosperms, the zygote divides asymmetrically to produce an embryo-precursor apical cell and a supporting basal cell. Zygotic division should properly segregate symbiotic organelles, because they cannot be synthesized de novo. In this study, we revealed the real-time dynamics of the principle source of ATP biogenesis, mitochondria, in Arabidopsis thaliana zygotes using live-cell observations and image quantifications. In the zygote, the mitochondria formed the extended structure associated with the longitudinal array of actin filaments (F-actins) and were polarly distributed along the apical-basal axis. The mitochondria were then temporally fragmented during zygotic division, and the resulting apical cells inherited mitochondria at higher concentration compared to the basal cells. Further observation of postembryonic organs showed that these mitochondrial behaviours are characteristic of the zygote. Overall, our results showed that the zygote has spatiotemporal regulation that unequally distributes the mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kimata
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (ITbM), Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Takumi Higaki
- International Research Organization for Advanced Science and Technology (IROAST), Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto860-8555, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kurihara
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (ITbM), Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
- JST, PRESTO, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
| | - Naoe Ando
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan
| | - Hikari Matsumoto
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Higashiyama
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (ITbM), Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo113-0033, Japan
| | - Minako Ueda
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (ITbM), Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
- Division of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan
- Author for correspondence: M. Ueda, Tel.: +81 22-795-6713; E-mail:
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