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Cunha GR, Cao M, Derpinghaus A, Baskin LS. Androgenic induction of penile features in postnatal female mouse external genitalia from birth to adulthood: Is the female sexual phenotype ever irreversibly determined? Differentiation 2023; 131:1-26. [PMID: 36924743 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2023.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Female mice were treated for 35 days from birth to 60 days postnatal (P0, [birth], P5, P10, P20 and adult [∼P60]) with dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Such treatment elicited profound masculinization the female external genitalia and development of penile features (penile spines, male urogenital mating protuberance (MUMP) cartilage, corpus cavernosum glandis, corporal body, MUMP-corpora cavernosa, a large preputial space, internal preputial space, os penis). Time course studies demonstrated that DHT elicited canalization of the U-shaped clitoral lamina to create a U-shaped preputial space, preputial lining epithelium and penile epithelium adorned with spines. The effect of DHT was likely due to signaling through androgen receptors normally present postnatally in the clitoral lamina and associated mesenchyme. This study highlights a remarkable male/female difference in specification and determination of urogenital organ identity. Urogenital organ identity in male mice is irreversibly specified and determined prenatally (prostate, penis, and seminal vesicle), whereas many aspects of the female urogenital organogenesis are not irreversibly determined at birth and in the case of external genitalia are not irreversibly determined even into adulthood, the exception being positioning of the female urethra, which is determined prenatally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Amber Derpinghaus
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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Role of mesonephric contribution to mouse testicular development revisited. Differentiation 2023; 129:109-119. [PMID: 35000816 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2021.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The role of the mesonephros in testicular development was re-evaluated by growing embryonic day 11.5 (E11.5) mouse testes devoid of mesonephros for 8-21 days in vivo under the renal capsule of castrated male athymic nude mice. This method provides improved growth conditions relative to previous studies based upon short-term (4-7 days) organ culture. Meticulous controls involved wholemount examination of dissected E11.5 mouse testes as well as serial sections of dissected E11.5 mouse testes which were indeed shown to be devoid of mesonephros. As expected, grafts of E11.5 mouse testes with mesonephros attached formed seminiferous tubules and also contained mesonephric derivatives. Grafts of E11.5 mouse testes without associated mesonephros also formed seminiferous tubules and never contained mesonephric derivatives. The consistent absence of mesonephric derivatives in grafts of E11.5 mouse testes grafted alone is further proof of the complete removal of the mesonephros from the E11.5 mouse testes. The testicular tissues that developed in grafts of E11.5 mouse testes alone contained canalized seminiferous tubules composed of Sox9-positive Sertoli cells as well as GENA-positive germ cells. The seminiferous tubules were surrounded by α-actin-positive myoid cells, and the interstitial space contained 3βHSD-1-positive Leydig cells. Grafts of E11.5 GFP mouse testes into wild-type hosts developed GFP-positive vasculature indicating that E11.5 mouse testes contain vascular precursors. These results indicate that the E11.5 mouse testis contains precursor cells for Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, myoid cells and vasculature whose development and differentiation are independent of cells migrating from the E11.5 mesonephros.
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Cunha GR, Cao M, Aksel S, Derpinghaus A, Baskin LS. Mouse-human species differences in early testicular development and its implications. Differentiation 2023; 129:79-95. [PMID: 35667976 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2022.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The mouse has been used as a model of human organogenesis with the tacit assumption that morphogenetic and molecular mechanisms in mice are translatable to human organogenesis. While many morphogenetic and molecular mechanisms are shared in mice and humans, many anatomic, morphogenetic, and molecular differences have been noted. Two critical gaps in our knowledge prevent meaningful comparisons of mouse versus human testicular development: (a) human testicular development is profoundly under-represented in the literature, and (b) an absence of a detailed day-by-day ontogeny of mouse testicular development from E11.5 to E16.5 encompassing the ambisexual stage to seminiferous cord formation. To address these deficiencies, histologic and immunohistochemical studies were pursued in comparable stages of mouse and human testicular development with a particular emphasis on Leydig, Sertoli and myoid cells through review of the literature and new observations. For example, an androgen-receptor-positive testicular medulla is present in the developing human testis but not in the developing mouse testis. The human testicular medulla and associated mesonephros were historically described as the source of Sertoli cells in seminiferous cords. Consistent with this idea, the profoundly androgen receptor (AR)-positive human testicular medulla was shown to be a zone of mesenchymal to epithelial transition and a zone from which AR-positive cells appear to migrate into the human testicular cortex. While mouse Sertoli and Leydig cells have been proposed to arise from coelomic epithelium, Sertoli (SOX9) or Leydig (HSD3B1) cell markers are absent from the immediate coelomic zone of the developing human testis, perhaps because Leydig and Sertoli cell precursors are undifferentiated when they egress from the coelomic epithelium. The origin of mouse and human myoid cells remains unclear. This study provides a detailed comparison of the early stages of testicular development in human and mouse emphasizing differences in developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Sena Aksel
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Amber Derpinghaus
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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4
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Fujimoto K, Hashimoto D, Kashimada K, Kumegawa S, Ueda Y, Hyuga T, Hirashima T, Inoue N, Suzuki K, Hara I, Asamura S, Yamada G. A visualization system for erectile vascular dynamics. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:1000342. [PMID: 36313553 PMCID: PMC9615422 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1000342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Erection is an essential process which requires the male penis for copulation. This copulatory process depends on the vascular dynamic regulation of the penis. The corpus cavernosum (CC) in the upper (dorsal) part of the penis plays a major role in regulating blood flow inside the penis. When the CC is filled with blood, the sinusoids, including micro-vessels, dilate during erection. The CC is an androgen-dependent organ, and various genital abnormalities including erectile dysfunction (ED) are widely known. Previous studies have shown that androgen deprivation by castration results in significantly decreased smooth muscles of the CC. Experimental works in erectile biology have previously measured intracavernosal penile pressure and mechanical tension. Such reports analyze limited features without assessing the dynamic aspects of the erectile process. In the current study, we established a novel explant system enabling direct visual imaging of the sinusoidal lumen to evaluate the dynamic movement of the cavernous space. To analyze the alternation of sinusoidal spaces, micro-dissected CC explants by patent blue dye injection were incubated and examined for their structural alternations during relaxation/contraction. The dynamic process of relaxation/contraction was analyzed with various external factors administered to the CC. The system enabled the imaging of relaxation/contraction of the lumens of the sinusoids and the collagen-containing tissues. Histological analysis on the explant system also showed the relaxation/contraction. Thus, the system mimics the regulatory process of dynamic relaxation/contraction in the erectile response. The current system also enabled evaluating the erectile pathophysiology. In the current study, the lumen of sinusoids relaxed/contracted in castrated mice similarly with normal mice. These results suggested that the dynamic erectile relaxation/contraction process was similarly retained in castrated mice. However, the system also revealed decreased duration time of erection in castrated mice. The current study is expected to promote further understanding of the pathophysiology of ED, which will be useful for new treatments in the future. Hence, the current system provides unique information to investigate the novel regulations of erectile function, which can provide tools for analyzing the pathology of ED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kota Fujimoto
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Daiki Hashimoto
- Department of Molecular Physiology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, Suita, Japan
| | - Kenichi Kashimada
- Department of Pediatrics and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Kumegawa
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Yuko Ueda
- Department of Urology, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Taiju Hyuga
- Department of Pediatric Urology, Children’s Medical Center Tochigi, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Hirashima
- Mechanobiology Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Norimitsu Inoue
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Kentaro Suzuki
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - Isao Hara
- Department of Urology, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Shinichi Asamura
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Gen Yamada
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
- *Correspondence: Gen Yamada,
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Kajimoto M, Suzuki K, Ueda Y, Fujimoto K, Takeo T, Nakagata N, Hyuga T, Isono K, Yamada G. Androgen/Wnt/β-catenin signal axis augments cell proliferation of the mouse erectile tissue, corpus cavernosum. Congenit Anom (Kyoto) 2022; 62:123-133. [PMID: 35318743 DOI: 10.1111/cga.12465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The murine penile erectile tissues including corpus cavernosum (CC) are composed of blood vessels, smooth muscle, and connective tissue, showing marked sexual differences. It has been known that the androgens are required for sexually dimorphic organogenesis. It is however unknown about the features of androgen signaling during mouse CC development. It is also unclear how androgen-driven downstream factors are involved such processes. In the current study, we analyzed the onset of sexually dimorphic CC formation based on histological analyses, the dynamics of androgen receptor (AR) expression, and regulation of cell proliferation. Of note, we identified Dickkopf-related protein 2 (Dkk2), an inhibitor of β-catenin signaling, was predominantly expressed in female CC compared with male. Furthermore, administration of androgens resulted in activation of β-catenin signaling. We have found the Sox9 gene, one of the essential markers for chondrocyte, was specifically expressed in the developing CC. Hence, we utilized CC-specific, Sox9 CreERT2 , β-catenin conditional mutant mice. Such mutant mice showed defective cell proliferation. Furthermore, introduction of activated form of β-catenin mutation (gain of function mutation for Wnt/β-catenin signaling) in CC induced augmented cell proliferation. Altogether, we revealed androgen-Wnt/β-catenin signal dependent cell proliferation was essential for sexually dimorphic CC formation. These findings open new avenues for understanding developmental mechanisms of androgen-dependent cell proliferation during sexual differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuki Kajimoto
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Kentaro Suzuki
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Yuko Ueda
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Kota Fujimoto
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Toru Takeo
- Division of Reproductive Engineering, Center for Animal Resources and Development, Institute of Resource Development and Analysis, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Naomi Nakagata
- Division of Reproductive Biotechnology and Innovation, Institute of Resource Development and Analysis, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Taiju Hyuga
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan.,Department of Pediatric Urology, Jichi Medical University, Children's Medical Center Tochigi, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kyoichi Isono
- Laboratory Animal Center, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Gen Yamada
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
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Early cellular development induced by ecdysteroid in sex-specific wing degeneration of the wingless female winter moth. Cell Tissue Res 2021; 387:29-38. [PMID: 34661757 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-021-03540-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The winter moth, Nyssiodes lefuarius, exhibits striking sexual dimorphism in wing form; males have functional wings of normal size, whereas females lack wings. We previously found that the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) triggered massive programmed cell death (PCD) only in the female pupal wing epithelium; however, when and how early sexual trait development of the pupal wings is initiated during pupal-adult metamorphosis remains obscure. To clarify the detailed morphological changes and mechanisms underlying early sexual trait development and cell death, we examined the effects of 20E on early ultrastructural and histological changes in the pupal wing epithelium of both sexes. Before the onset of adult differentiation, no morphological differences were observed in the epithelial cells of both sexes at an ultrastructural level. When 5.4 µg of 20E was injected into pupae of both sexes at 15 days after the onset of pupation, retraction of the wing epithelium from the pupal cuticle was initiated at day 2 after 20E injection in both sexes. Although overt degeneration of wing tissue was not still obvious, apoptotic body-like structures and auto-phagosomes were visible at day 3 after 20E injection in females, whereas development of scale precursor cells started on day 4 after injection in males. Our results suggest that (1) the injection of 20E induced sexually dimorphic changes in the pattern of organelle distribution in wing epithelial cells, and (2) abnormally shaped mitochondria in the cytoplasm of the female wing epithelium might be involved in the PCD that occurs during wing tissue degeneration.
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7
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Cornification and classical versus nonclassical androgen receptor signaling in mouse penile/preputial development. Differentiation 2021; 121:1-12. [PMID: 34416482 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Mouse penile development is androgen-dependent. During development of male and female external genitalia, an internal ectodermal epithelial structure forms called the preputial lamina. At puberty the male preputial lamina canalizes to create the preputial space, effectively splitting into two layers: (a) the epithelial lining of the prepuce and (b) the surface epithelium of the penis. The female preputial lamina does not canalize, and instead remodels into the inverted U-shaped clitoral lamina of the adult female mouse. Androgen-dependent penile development was studied in transgenic mice with pathway-selective AR mutant transgenes through which AR signaling was activated either via the classical (AR-C) or the nonclassical pathway (AR-NC). Penile development and canalization of the preputial lamina was observed in AR-C and wild-type male mice naturally having both AR-C and AR-NC pathways. Conversely, clitoral development occurred in AR null (lacking both AR-C and AR-NC pathways) and AR-NC mice. The process of canalization of the preputial lamina seen in wild-type, AR-C and AR-C/AR-NC male mice involved cornification of the preputial lamina which involved up-regulation of keratin 10 and loricrin. Such up-regulation of these epidermal proteins was absent in the developing and adult clitoral lamina seen in wild-type female mice and AR-NC and AR null male (XY) mice. Thus, signaling through AR-C is sufficient to initiate and promote penile development and canalization of the preputial lamina, a process involving epithelial cornification.
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Chang J, Wang S, Zheng Z. Etiology of Hypospadias: A Comparative Review of Genetic Factors and Developmental Processes Between Human and Animal Models. Res Rep Urol 2021; 12:673-686. [PMID: 33381468 PMCID: PMC7769141 DOI: 10.2147/rru.s276141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypospadias is a congenital anomaly of the penis with an occurrence of approximately 1 in 200 boys, but the etiology of the majority of hypospadias has remained unknown. Numerous genes have been reported as having variants in hypospadias patients, and many studies on genetic deletion of key genes in mouse genital development have also been published. Until now, no comparative analysis in the genes related literature has been reported. The basic knowledge of penile development and hypospadias is mainly obtained from animal model studies. Understanding of the differences and similarities between human and animal models is crucial for studies of hypospadias. In this review, mutations and polymorphisms of hypospadias-related genes have been compared between humans and mice, and differential genotype–phenotype relationships of certain genes between humans and mice have been discussed using the data available in PubMed and MGI online databases, and our analysis only revealed mutations in seven out of 43 human hypospadias related genes which have been reported to show similar phenotypes in mutant mice. The differences and similarities in the processes of penile development and hypospadias malformation among human and commonly used animal models suggest that the guinea pig may be a good model to study the mechanism of human penile development and etiology of hypospadias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Chang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA.,School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Wang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
| | - Zhengui Zheng
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
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Cunha GR, Li Y, Mei C, Derpinghaus A, Baskin LS. Ontogeny of estrogen receptors in human male and female fetal reproductive tracts. Differentiation 2020; 118:107-131. [PMID: 33176961 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2020.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews and provides new observations on the ontogeny of estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) and estrogen receptor beta (ESR2) in developing human male and female internal and external genitalia. Included in this study are observations on the human fetal uterine tube, the uterotubal junction, uterus, cervix, vagina, penis and clitoris. We also summarize and report on the ontogeny of estrogen receptors in the human fetal prostate, prostatic urethra and epididymis. The ontogeny of ESR1 and ESR2, which spans from 8 to 21 weeks correlates well with the known "window of susceptibility" (7-15 weeks) for diethylstilbestrol (DES)-induced malformations of the human female reproductive tract as determined through examination of DES daughters exposed in utero to this potent estrogen. Our fairly complete mapping of the ontogeny of ESR1 and ESR2 in developing human male and female internal and external genitalia provides a mechanistic framework for further investigation of the role of estrogen in normal development and of abnormalities elicited by exogenous estrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Cao Mei
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Amber Derpinghaus
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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Baskin L, Sinclair A, Derpinghaus A, Cao M, Li Y, Overland M, Aksel S, Cunha GR. Estrogens and development of the mouse and human external genitalia. Differentiation 2020; 118:82-106. [PMID: 33092894 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2020.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The Jost hypothesis states that androgens are necessary for normal development of the male external genitalia. In this review, we explore the complementary hypothesis that estrogens can elicit abnormal development of male external genitalia. Herein, we review available data in both humans and mice on the deleterious effects of estrogen on external genitalia development, especially during the "window of susceptibility" to exogenous estrogens. The male and female developing external genitalia in both the human and mouse express ESR1 and ESR2, along with the androgen receptor (AR). Human clinical data suggests that exogenous estrogens can adversely affect normal penile and urethral development, resulting in hypospadias. Experimental mouse data also strongly supports the idea that exogenous estrogens cause penile and urethral defects. Despite key differences, estrogen-induced hypospadias in the mouse displays certain morphogenetic homologies to human hypospadias, including disruption of urethral fusion and preputial abnormalities. Timing of estrogenic exposure, or the "window of susceptibility," is an important consideration when examining malformations of the external genitalia in both humans and mice. In addition to a review of normal human and mouse external genital development, this article aims to review the present data on the role of estrogens in normal and abnormal development of the mouse and human internal and external genitalia. Based on the current literature for both species, we conclude that estrogen-dependent processes may play a role in abnormal genital development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Baskin
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Amber Derpinghaus
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Mei Cao
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Yi Li
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Maya Overland
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Sena Aksel
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- University of California, San Francisco, Division of Pediatric Urology, Department of Urology, 550 16th St, 5th Floor, Mission Hall Pediatric Urology, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
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Cunha GR, Cao M, Franco O, Baskin LS. A comparison of prostatic development in xenografts of human fetal prostate and human female fetal proximal urethra grown in dihydrotestosterone-treated hosts. Differentiation 2020; 115:37-52. [PMID: 32861072 PMCID: PMC7768987 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2020.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this paper is to explore the ability of the human female urogenital sinus immediately below the bladder (proximal urethra) to undergo prostatic development in response to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). To establish this idea, xenografts of human fetal female proximal urethra were grown in castrated nude mouse hosts receiving a subcutaneous DHT pellet. To verify the prostatic nature of the resultant glands, DHT-treated human fetal female urethral xenografts were compared with human fetal prostatic xenografts (derived from male specimens) grown in untreated and DHT-treated castrated mouse hosts and human fetal female proximal urethral xenografts grown in untreated castrated hosts. The resultant glands observed in DHT-treated human fetal female proximal urethral xenografts expressed 3 prostate-specific markers, NKX3.1, prostate specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase as well as the androgen receptor. Glands induced by DHT exhibited a protein expression profile of additional immunohistochemical markers (seven keratins, RUNX1, ESR2, TP63 and FOXA1) consistent with the unique spatial pattern of these proteins in prostatic ducts. Xenografts of human fetal female proximal urethra grown in DHT-treated hosts also expressed one of the salient features of prostatic development, namely androgen responsiveness. The experimental induction of prostatic differentiation from human fetal female proximal urethra makes possible future in-depth analysis of the molecular pathways directly involved in initiation of human prostatic development and subsequent epithelial differentiation, and more important whether the molecular pathways involved in human prostatic development are similar/identical versus different from that in murine prostatic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Omar Franco
- Department of Surgery, North Shore University Health System, 1001 University Place, Evanston, IL, 60201, USA
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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Cunha GR, Liu G, Sinclair A, Cao M, Glickman S, Cooke PS, Baskin L. Androgen-independent events in penile development in humans and animals. Differentiation 2020; 111:98-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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13
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Mattiske D, Behringer RR, Overbeek PA, Pask AJ. A novel long non-coding RNA, Leat1, causes reduced anogenital distance and fertility in female mice. Differentiation 2019; 112:1-6. [PMID: 31830612 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Defective anorectal and urogenital malformations are some of the most severe congenital anomalies encountered in children. Only a few molecular cues have been identified in early formation of the female urogenital system. Here we describe a novel long non-coding RNA molecule known as Leat1 (long non-coding RNA, EphrinB2 associated transcript 1). This lncRNA is syntenic with EfnB2 (which encodes EphrinB2) and expressed during embryonic development of the genital tubercle. While lncRNAs have varied functions, many are known to regulate their neighbouring genes. Eph/Ephrin bidirectional signaling molecules mediate many patterning pathways in early embryonic development, including cloacal septation and urethral development. Here we investigate the role of Leat1 and its possible regulation of EphrinB2 during development of the female reproductive tract. We show that a loss of Leat1 leads to reduced EfnB2 expression in the developing female genital tubercle, reduced anogenital distance and decreased fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deidre Mattiske
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Richard R Behringer
- Department of Genetics, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Paul A Overbeek
- Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine. Houston, TX, USA
| | - Andrew J Pask
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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14
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Cunha GR, Sinclair A, Ricke WA, Robboy SJ, Cao M, Baskin LS. Reproductive tract biology: Of mice and men. Differentiation 2019; 110:49-63. [PMID: 31622789 PMCID: PMC7339118 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The study of male and female reproductive tract development requires expertise in two separate disciplines, developmental biology and endocrinology. For ease of experimentation and economy, the mouse has been used extensively as a model for human development and pathogenesis, and for the most part similarities in developmental processes and hormone action provide ample justification for the relevance of mouse models for human reproductive tract development. Indeed, there are many examples describing the phenotype of human genetic disorders that have a reasonably comparable phenotype in mice, attesting to the congruence between mouse and human development. However, anatomic, developmental and endocrinologic differences exist between mice and humans that (1) must be appreciated and (2) considered with caution when extrapolating information between all animal models and humans. It is critical that the investigator be aware of both the similarities and differences in organogenesis and hormone action within male and female reproductive tracts so as to focus on those features of mouse models with clear relevance to human development/pathology. This review, written by a team with extensive expertise in the anatomy, developmental biology and endocrinology of both mouse and human urogenital tracts, focusses upon the significant human/mouse differences, and when appropriate voices a cautionary note regarding extrapolation of mouse models for understanding development of human male and female reproductive tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA; George M. O'Brien Center of Research Excellence, Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 93705, USA; Department of Pathology, Duke University, Davison Building, Box 3712, Durham, NC, 27710, USA.
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Will A Ricke
- George M. O'Brien Center of Research Excellence, Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 93705, USA
| | - Stanley J Robboy
- Department of Pathology, Duke University, Davison Building, Box 3712, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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15
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Regulatory roles of epithelial-mesenchymal interaction (EMI) during early and androgen dependent external genitalia development. Differentiation 2019; 110:29-35. [PMID: 31590136 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Development of external genitalia (ExG) has been a topic of long mystery in the field of organogenesis research. Early stage male and female of mouse embryos develop a common genital tubercle (GT) in the perineum whose outgrowth extends distally from the posterior cloacal regions. Concomitant with GT outgrowth, the cloaca is divided into urogenital sinus and anorectum by urorectal septum (URS) internally. The outgrowth of the GT is associated with the formation of endodermal epithelial urethral plate (UP) attached to the ventral epidermis of the GT. Such a common developmental phase is observed until around embryonic day 15.5 (E15.5) morphologically in mouse embryogenesis. Various growth factor genes, such as Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) and Wnt genes are expressed and function during GT formation. Since the discovery of key growth factor signals and several regulatory molecules, elucidation of their functions has been achieved utilizing mouse developmental models, conditional gene knockout mouse and in vitro culture. Analyses on the phenotypes of such mouse models have revealed that several growth factor families play fundamental roles in ExG organogenesis based on the epithelial-mesenchymal interaction (EMI). More recently, EMI between developing urethral epithelia and its bilateral mesenchyme of later stages is also reported during subsequent stage of androgen-dependent male-type urethral formation in the mouse embryo. Mafb, belonging to AP-1 family and a key androgen-responsive mesenchymal gene, is identified and starts to be expressed around E14.5 when masculinization of the urethra is initiated. Mesenchymal cell condensation and migration, which are regulated by nonmuscle myosin, are shown to be essential process for masculinization. Hence, studies on EMI at various embryonic stages are important not only for early but also for subsequent masculinization of the urethra. In this review, a dynamic mode of EMI for both early and late phases of ExG development is discussed.
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16
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Cunha GR, Liu G, Sinclair A, Cao M, Baskin L. Clitoral development in the mouse and human. Differentiation 2019; 111:79-97. [PMID: 31731099 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this report is (a) to provide the first detailed description of mouse clitoral development, and (b) to compare mouse and human clitoral development. For this purpose, external genitalia of female mice were examined by wholemount microscopy, histology and immunohistochemistry from 14 days of gestation to 10 days postnatal. Human clitoral development was examined by these techniques as well as by scanning electron microscopy and optical projection tomography from 8 to 19 weeks of gestation. The adult mouse clitoris is an internal organ defined by a U-shaped clitoral lamina whose development is associated with the prenatal medial and distal growth of the female preputial swellings along the sides of the genital tubercle to form the circumferential preputial lamina. Regression of the ventral aspect of the preputial lamina leads to formation of the U-shaped clitoral lamina recognized as early as 17 days of gestation. While the adult U-shaped mouse clitoral lamina is closely associated with the vagina, and it appears to be completely non-responsive to estrogen as opposed to the highly estrogen-responsive vaginal epithelium. The prominent perineal appendage in adult females is prepuce, formed via fusion of the embryonic preputial swellings and is not the clitoris. The human clitoris is in many respects a smaller anatomic version of the human penis having all of the external and internal elements except the urethra. The human clitoris (like the human penis) is derived from the genital tubercle with the clitoral glans projecting into the vaginal vestibule. Adult morphology and developmental processes are virtually non-comparable in the mouse and human clitoris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Ge Liu
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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17
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Cripps SM, Mattiske DM, Black JR, Risbridger GP, Govers LC, Phillips TR, Pask AJ. A loss of estrogen signaling in the aromatase deficient mouse penis results in mild hypospadias. Differentiation 2019; 109:42-52. [PMID: 31520742 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Hypospadias is the abnormal opening of the urethra on the underside of the penis and occurs in approximately 1/125 live male births worldwide. The incidence rate of hypospadias has dramatically increased over the past few decades. This is now attributed, at least in part, to our exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which alter the hormonal signals required for development of the penis. In humans androgens are the main drivers of fusion of the urethral folds to form the urethra within the shaft of the penis, a process required for termination of the urethra in its normal location at the tip of the penis. However, recent research has suggested that estrogen also plays a role in this process. To better understand how EDCs impact urethral development it is essential that we understand the normal function of hormones during development of the penis. To define the role of estrogen in urethral development we examined development of the penis in the aromatase (Cyp19a1) Knockout (ArKO) mouse strain in which endogenous estrogen production is completely ablated. We found that the ArKO penis had a mild hypospadias phenotype. The developing ArKO postnatal penis displayed an early disruption in preputial development, which likely causes the mild hypospadias observed in adults. Using qPCR, we found altered expression of keratin genes and key urethral patterning genes in response to the disrupted estrogen signaling. The hypospadias phenotype was almost identical to that reported for the estrogen receptor α (ERα) knockout confirming that ERα is the predominant receptor for mediating estrogen action during development of the mouse penis. Our results show that estrogen is required for normal prepucial development and placement of the mature urethral opening at the distal aspect of the penis. We also identified several genes which are potential downstream targets of estrogen during normal urethral closure. With this knowledge, we can now better understand how anti-estrogenic as well as estrogenic EDCs disrupt urethral closure to cause mild hypospadias in both mice and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Cripps
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Deidre M Mattiske
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jay R Black
- School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gail P Risbridger
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Victoria, Australia; Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Luke C Govers
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Andrew J Pask
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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18
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Govers LC, Phillips TR, Mattiske DM, Rashoo N, Black JR, Sinclair A, Baskin LS, Risbridger GP, Pask AJ. A critical role for estrogen signaling in penis development. FASEB J 2019; 33:10383-10392. [PMID: 31225966 PMCID: PMC6704459 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201802586rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Hypospadias, a developmental defect of the penis, is one of the most common congenital malformations in humans. Its incidence has rapidly increased over recent decades, and this has been largely attributed to our increased exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Penis development is primarily an androgen-driven process; however, estrogen and xenoestrogens are known to affect penis development in both humans and mice. Here, we investigated the role of estrogen in the developing penis. Using a novel penis culture system, we showed that exogenous estrogen directly targets the developing penis in utero to cause hypospadias. In addition, we also uncovered an unexpected endogenous role for estrogen in normal postnatal penis development and showed that a loss of estrogen signaling results in a mild hypospadias phenotype, the most common manifestation of this disease in humans. Our findings demonstrated that both androgen and estrogen signaling are intrinsically required for normal urethral closure. These findings confirmed that penis development is not an entirely androgen-driven process but one in which endogenous estrogen signaling also plays a critical role.-Govers, L. C., Phillips, T. R., Mattiske, D. M., Rashoo, N., Black, J. R., Sinclair, A., Baskin, L. S., Risbridger, G. P., Pask, A. J. A critical role for estrogen signaling in penis development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke C. Govers
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tiffany R. Phillips
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Deidre M. Mattiske
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nineveh Rashoo
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jay R. Black
- School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California–San Francisco Benioff Children’s Hospital, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Laurence S. Baskin
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California–San Francisco Benioff Children’s Hospital, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Gail P. Risbridger
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew J. Pask
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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19
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Zhou Y, Peng J, Cao X, Yan C, Huang F, Shen L, Long C, Liu X, Wei G. Retardation of Preputial Wound Healing in Rats with Hypospadias Induced by Flutamide. J INVEST SURG 2018; 33:164-171. [PMID: 30380353 DOI: 10.1080/08941939.2018.1483448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhou
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Jinpu Peng
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Xining Cao
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Chao Yan
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Fangyuan Huang
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Lianju Shen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Chunlan Long
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Xing Liu
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
| | - Guanghui Wei
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
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20
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Cunha GR, Baskin L. Development of human male and female urogenital tracts. Differentiation 2018; 103:1-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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21
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Cunha GR, Vezina CM, Isaacson D, Ricke WA, Timms BG, Cao M, Franco O, Baskin LS. Development of the human prostate. Differentiation 2018; 103:24-45. [PMID: 30224091 PMCID: PMC6234090 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This paper provides a detailed compilation of human prostatic development that includes human fetal prostatic gross anatomy, histology, and ontogeny of selected epithelial and mesenchymal differentiation markers and signaling molecules throughout the stages of human prostatic development: (a) pre-bud urogenital sinus (UGS), (b) emergence of solid prostatic epithelial buds from urogenital sinus epithelium (UGE), (c) bud elongation and branching, (d) canalization of the solid epithelial cords, (e) differentiation of luminal and basal epithelial cells, and (f) secretory cytodifferentiation. Additionally, we describe the use of xenografts to assess the actions of androgens and estrogens on human fetal prostatic development. In this regard, we report a new model of de novo DHT-induction of prostatic development from xenografts of human fetal female urethras, which emphasizes the utility of the xenograft approach for investigation of initiation of human prostatic development. These studies raise the possibility of molecular mechanistic studies on human prostatic development through the use of tissue recombinants composed of mutant mouse UGM combined with human fetal prostatic epithelium. Our compilation of human prostatic developmental processes is likely to advance our understanding of the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer as the neoformation of ductal-acinar architecture during normal development is shared during the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States.
| | - Chad M Vezina
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Dylan Isaacson
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - William A Ricke
- Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, United States
| | - Barry G Timms
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, United States
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Omar Franco
- Department of Surgery, North Shore University Health System, 1001 University Place, Evanston, IL 60201, United States
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
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22
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Baskin L, Shen J, Sinclair A, Cao M, Liu X, Liu G, Isaacson D, Overland M, Li Y, Cunha GR. Development of the human penis and clitoris. Differentiation 2018; 103:74-85. [PMID: 30249413 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The human penis and clitoris develop from the ambisexual genital tubercle. To compare and contrast the development of human penis and clitoris, we used macroscopic photography, optical projection tomography, light sheet microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, histology and immunohistochemistry. The human genital tubercle differentiates into a penis under the influence of androgens forming a tubular urethra that develops by canalization of the urethral plate to form a wide diamond-shaped urethral groove (opening zipper) whose edges (urethral folds) fuse in the midline (closing zipper). In contrast, in females, without the influence of androgens, the vestibular plate (homologue of the urethral plate) undergoes canalization to form a wide vestibular groove whose edges (vestibular folds) remain unfused, ultimately forming the labia minora defining the vaginal vestibule. The neurovascular anatomy is similar in both the developing human penis and clitoris and is the key to successful surgical reconstructions.
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23
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André GI, Firman RC, Simmons LW. Phenotypic plasticity in genitalia: baculum shape responds to sperm competition risk in house mice. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20181086. [PMID: 30051823 PMCID: PMC6053933 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Males are known to adjust their expenditure on testes growth and sperm production in response to sperm competition risk. Genital morphology can also contribute to competitive fertilization success but whether male genital morphology can respond plastically to the sperm competition environment has received little attention. Here, we exposed male house mice to two different sperm competition environments during their sexual development and quantified phenotypic plasticity in baculum morphology. The sperm competition environment generated plasticity in body growth. Males maturing under sperm competition risk were larger and heavier than males maturing under no sperm competition risk. We used a landmark-based geometric morphometric approach to measure baculum size and shape. Independent of variation in body size, males maintained under risk of sperm competition had a relatively thicker and more distally extended baculum bulb compared with males maintained under no sperm competition risk. Plasticity in baculum shape paralleled evolutionary responses to selection from sperm competition reported in previous studies of house mice. Our findings provide experimental evidence of socially mediated phenotypic plasticity in male genitalia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonçalo I André
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences (M092), The University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia
| | - Renée C Firman
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences (M092), The University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia
| | - Leigh W Simmons
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences (M092), The University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia
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24
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Liu G, Liu X, Shen J, Sinclair A, Baskin L, Cunha GR. Contrasting mechanisms of penile urethral formation in mouse and human. Differentiation 2018; 101:46-64. [PMID: 29859371 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper addresses the developmental mechanisms of formation of the mouse and human penile urethra and the possibility that two disparate mechanisms are at play. It has been suggested that the entire penile urethra of the mouse forms via direct canalization of the endodermal urethral plate. While this mechanism surely accounts for development of the proximal portion of the mouse penile urethra, we suggest that the distal portion of the mouse penile urethra forms via a series of epithelial fusion events. Through review of the recent literature in combination with new data, it is unlikely that the entire mouse urethra is formed from the endodermal urethral plate due in part to the fact that from E14 onward the urethral plate is not present in the distal aspect of the genital tubercle. Formation of the distal portion of the mouse urethra receives substantial contribution from the preputial swellings that form the preputial-urethral groove and subsequently the preputial-urethral canal, the later of which is subdivided by a fusion event to form the distal portion of the mouse penile urethra. Examination of human penile development also reveals comparable dual morphogenetic mechanisms. However, in the case of human, direct canalization of the urethral plate occurs in the glans, while fusion events are involved in formation of the urethra within the penile shaft, a pattern exactly opposite to that of the mouse. The highest incidence of hypospadias in humans occurs at the junction of these two different developmental mechanisms. The relevance of the mouse as a model of human hypospadias is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Liu
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Xin Liu
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Joel Shen
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States.
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25
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Dos Santos AC, Conley AJ, de Oliveira MF, de Assis Neto AC. Development of urogenital system in the Spix cavy: A model for studies on sexual differentiation. Differentiation 2018; 101:25-38. [PMID: 29684807 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This study documented, for the first time, the morphological patterns of differentiation of male and female genital organs of Spix cavy (Galea spixii) using histological and ultrastructural analyses, with immuno-localization of steroidogenic enzymes, cytochromes P450 aromatase (P450arom) and 17α-hydroxylase/17, 20-lyase (P450c17), involved in the synthesis of estrogens and androgens respectively throughout fetal sexual development. Undifferentiated gonads of Spix cavy develop into ovaries in females after 25 days of gestation (DG), exhibiting P450arom immunoreactivity. After 25 DG, paramesonephric ducts develop and form oviducts, uterine horns and cranial portion of the vagina. The caudal portion of the vagina originates from the urogenital sinus, and a vaginal closure membrane is present at the end of gestation. Partial channeling of the urethra into the clitoris occurs after 40 DG, but complete channeling never occurs. A preputial meatus emerges near the tip of organ. In males, undifferentiated gonads develop into testes at 25 DG and develop immunoreactivity for P450c17, which is required for androgens synthesis and likely maintenance of mesonephric ducts. Mesonephric ducts develop subsequently, forming the epididymis and ductus deferens. The pelvic urethra develops after 25 DG with channeling into the penis occurring around 30 DG. This is the first morphological study describing the process of sexual differentiation during gestation in a hystricomorph rodent and one of the most comprehensive analyses conducted in any mammal. Male genital organ development follows the general pattern described in other domestic mammals, but does not include formation of the baculum as occurs in mice and rats. In females, clitoral development includes partial canalization by the urethra and development of a preputial meatus. Further studies are required to clarify the mechanisms involved in the differentiative processes described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amilton Cesar Dos Santos
- Department of Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87 ZC, 05508-270 São Paulo-SP, Brazil
| | - Alan James Conley
- Population Health&Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | | | - Antônio Chaves de Assis Neto
- Department of Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87 ZC, 05508-270 São Paulo-SP, Brazil.
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Wang S, Shi M, Zhu D, Mathews R, Zheng Z. External Genital Development, Urethra Formation, and Hypospadias Induction in Guinea Pig: A Double Zipper Model for Human Urethral Development. Urology 2017; 113:179-186. [PMID: 29155192 DOI: 10.1016/j.urology.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether the guinea pig phallus would be an appropriate model of human penile development, we characterized the embryology and sexual differentiation of guinea pig external genitalia and attended to induce hypospadias in males and tubular urethra formation in females pharmacologically. MATERIALS AND METHODS The external genitalia of guinea pig were collected from genital swelling initiation to newborn stages, and scanning electronic microscopy and histology were performed to visualize the morphology and structure. Immunohistochemistry was used to determine the androgen receptor localization. Bicalutamide and methyltestosterone were given to pregnant dams to reveal the role and timing of androgen in guinea pig penile masculinization. RESULTS Canalization and dorsal-to-ventral movement of the urethral canal develops the urethral groove in both sexes, and then the males perform distal-opening-proximal-closing to form tubular urethra. More nuclear-localized androgen receptor is found in proximal genital tubercles of males than in females at (E) 29. Antiandrogen treatment at E26-E30 can cause hypospadias, and methyltestosterone administration at E27-E31 can induce tubular urethra formation in females. CONCLUSION Fetal development of the guinea pig phallus is homologous to that of humans. Although guinea pig has structures similar to mouse, the urethral groove and the tubular urethra formation are more similar to humans. Antiandrogen treatment causes hypospadias in males and additional androgen induces tubular urethra formation in females. Thus, guinea pig is an appropriate model for further study of cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in distal-opening-proximal-closing in tubular urethra formation and the evaluation of the pathophysiological processes of hypospadias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Wang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL
| | - Mingxin Shi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL
| | - Dongqing Zhu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL; Department of Pharmacy, Jiangsu Food & Pharmaceutical Science College, Huai'an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ranjiv Mathews
- Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University, Springfield, IL
| | - Zhengui Zheng
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL.
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Isaacson D, Shen J, Cao M, Sinclair A, Yue X, Cunha G, Baskin L. Renal Subcapsular xenografing of human fetal external genital tissue - A new model for investigating urethral development. Differentiation 2017; 98:1-13. [PMID: 29031189 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we introduce our novel renal subcapsular xenograft model for the study of human penile urethral and clitoral development. We grafted fifteen intact fetal penes and clitorides 8-11 weeks fetal age under the renal capsules of gonadectomized athymic mice. The mice were treated with a subcutaneous pellet of dihydrotestosterone (DHT), diethylstilbestrol (DES) or untreated with hormones. Xenografts were harvested after fourteen days of growth and analyzed via serial histologic sectioning and immunostaining for Ki-67, cytokeratins 6, 7 and 10, uroplakin and the androgen receptor. Non-grafted specimens of similar fetal age were sectioned and immunostained for the same antigenic markers. 14/15 (93.3%) grafts were successfully propagated and harvested. The developing urethral plate, urethral groove, tubular urethra, corporal bodies and preputial lamina were easily identifiable. These structures demonstrated robust cellularity, appropriate architecture and abundant Ki-67 expression. Expression patterns of cytokeratins 6, 7 and 10, uroplakin and the androgen receptor in xenografted specimens demonstrated characteristic male/female differences analogous to non-grafted specimens. DHT treatment reliably produced tubularization of nascent urethral and vestibular structures and male patterns of androgen receptor expression in grafts of both genetic sexes while estrogenic or hormonally absent conditions reliably resulted in a persistent open urethral/vestibular groove and female patterns of androgen receptor expression. This model's success enables further study into causal pathways by which endocrine-disrupting and endocrine-mimicking substances may directly cause disruption of normal human urethral development or hypospadias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Isaacson
- School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Joel Shen
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Xuan Yue
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gerald Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California San Francisco Benioff Children's Hospital, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Robboy SJ, Kurita T, Baskin L, Cunha GR. New insights into human female reproductive tract development. Differentiation 2017; 97:9-22. [PMID: 28918284 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
We present a detailed review of the embryonic and fetal development of the human female reproductive tract utilizing specimens from the 5th through the 22nd gestational week. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) as well as immunohistochemical stains were used to study the development of the human uterine tube, endometrium, myometrium, uterine cervix and vagina. Our study revisits and updates the classical reports of Koff (1933) and Bulmer (1957) and presents new data on development of human vaginal epithelium. Koff proposed that the upper 4/5ths of the vagina is derived from Müllerian epithelium and the lower 1/5th derived from urogenital sinus epithelium, while Bulmer proposed that vaginal epithelium derives solely from urogenital sinus epithelium. These conclusions were based entirely upon H&E stained sections. A central player in human vaginal epithelial development is the solid vaginal plate, which arises from the uterovaginal canal (fused Müllerian ducts) cranially and squamous epithelium of urogenital sinus caudally. Since Müllerian and urogenital sinus epithelium cannot be unequivocally identified in H&E stained sections, we used immunostaining for PAX2 (reactive with Müllerian epithelium) and FOXA1 (reactive with urogenital sinus epithelium). By this technique, the PAX2/FOXA1 boundary was located at the extreme caudal aspect of the vaginal plate at 12 weeks. During the ensuing weeks, the PAX2/FOXA1 boundary progressively extended cranially such that by 21 weeks the entire vaginal epithelium was FOXA1-reactive and PAX2-negative. This observation supports Bulmer's proposal that human vaginal epithelium derives solely from urogenital sinus epithelium. Clearly, the development of the human vagina is far more complex than previously envisioned and appears to be distinctly different in many respects from mouse vaginal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley J Robboy
- Department of Pathology, Duke University, Davison Building, Box 3712, Durham, NC 27710, United States.
| | - Takeshi Kurita
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, The Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ohio State University, 460 W. 12th Avenue, 812 Biomedical Research Tower, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
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29
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Molecular mechanisms of development of the human fetal female reproductive tract. Differentiation 2017; 97:54-72. [PMID: 29053991 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Human female reproductive tract development rests mostly upon hematoxilyn and eosin stained sections despite recent advances on molecular mechanisms in mouse studies. We report application of immunohistochemical methods to explore the ontogeny of epithelial and mesenchymal differentiation markers (keratins, homobox proteins, steroid receptors), transcription factors and signaling molecules (TP63 and RUNX1) during human female reproductive tract development. Keratins 6, 7, 8, 10, 14 and 19 (KRT6, KRT7, KRT8, KRT10, KRT14, KRT19) were expressed in a temporally and spatially dynamic fashion. The undifferentiated Müllerian duct and uterovaginal canal, lined by simple columnar epithelia, expressed KRT7, KRT8 and KRT19. Glandular derivatives of the Müllerian duct (uterine tube, uterine corpus and endocervix) maintained expression of these keratins, while tissues that undergo stratified squamous differentiation (exocervix and vagina) expressed KRT6, KRT14 and KRT10 during development in an age-dependent fashion. TP63 and RUNX1 were expressed prior to KRT14, as these two transcription factors are known to be upstream from KRT14 in developing Müllerian epithelium. In the vagina, KRT10, a marker of terminal differentiation, appeared after endogenous estrogens transformed the epithelium to a thick glycogenated squamous epithelium. Uroplakin, a protein unique to urothelium, was expressed only in the bladder, urethra and vaginal introitus, but not in the female reproductive tract itself. Mesenchymal differentiation was examined through immunostaining for HOXA11 (expressed in uterine mesenchyme) and ISL1 (expressed in vaginal mesenchyme). A detailed ontogeny of estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1), progesterone receptor (PGR) and the androgen receptor (AR) provides the mechanistic underpinning for the teratogenicity of estrogens, progestins and androgens on female reproductive tract development. Immunohistochemical analysis of differentiation markers and signaling molecules advance our understanding of normal development of the human female reproductive tract. These observations demonstrate remarkable similarities in mouse and human female reproductive tract development, but also highlight some key differences.
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30
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Flutamide-induced hypospadias in rats: A critical assessment. Differentiation 2017; 94:37-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Miyado M, Miyado K, Nakamura A, Fukami M, Yamada G, Oda SI. Expression patterns of Fgf8 and Shh in the developing external genitalia of Suncus murinus. Reproduction 2017; 153:187-195. [DOI: 10.1530/rep-16-0231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Reciprocal epithelial–mesenchymal interactions and several signalling pathways regulate the development of the genital tubercle (GT), an embryonic primordium of external genitalia. The morphology of the adult male external genitalia of the Asian house musk shrew Suncus murinus (hereafter, laboratory name: suncus) belonging to the order Eulipotyphla (the former order Insectivora or Soricomorpha) differs from those of mice and humans. However, the developmental process of the suncus GT and its regulatory genes are unknown. In the present study, we explored the morphological changes and gene expression patterns during the development of the suncus GT. Morphological observations suggested the presence of common (during the initial outgrowth) and species-specific (during the sexual differentiation of GT) developmental processes of the suncus GT. In gene expression analysis, fibroblast growth factor 8 (Fgf8) and sonic hedgehog (Shh), an indicator and regulator of GT development in mice respectively, were found to be expressed in the cloacal epithelium and the developing urethral epithelium of the suncus GT. This pattern of expression specifically in GT epithelium is similar to that observed in the developing mouse GT. Our results indicate that the mechanism of GT formation regulated by the FGF and SHH signalling pathways is widely conserved in mammals.
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Computational modeling and simulation of genital tubercle development. Reprod Toxicol 2016; 64:151-61. [PMID: 27180093 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2016.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Hypospadias is a developmental defect of urethral tube closure that has a complex etiology involving genetic and environmental factors, including anti-androgenic and estrogenic disrupting chemicals; however, little is known about the morphoregulatory consequences of androgen/estrogen balance during genital tubercle (GT) development. Computer models that predictively model sexual dimorphism of the GT may provide a useful resource to translate chemical-target bipartite networks and their developmental consequences across the human-relevant chemical universe. Here, we describe a multicellular agent-based model of genital tubercle (GT) development that simulates urethrogenesis from the sexually-indifferent urethral plate stage to urethral tube closure. The prototype model, constructed in CompuCell3D, recapitulates key aspects of GT morphogenesis controlled by SHH, FGF10, and androgen pathways through modulation of stochastic cell behaviors, including differential adhesion, motility, proliferation, and apoptosis. Proper urethral tube closure in the model was shown to depend quantitatively on SHH- and FGF10-induced effects on mesenchymal proliferation and epithelial apoptosis-both ultimately linked to androgen signaling. In the absence of androgen, GT development was feminized and with partial androgen deficiency, the model resolved with incomplete urethral tube closure, thereby providing an in silico platform for probabilistic prediction of hypospadias risk across combinations of minor perturbations to the GT system at various stages of embryonic development.
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Sinclair AW, Cao M, Shen J, Cooke P, Risbridger G, Baskin L, Cunha GR. Mouse hypospadias: A critical examination and definition. Differentiation 2016; 92:306-317. [PMID: 27068029 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Hypospadias is a common malformation whose etiology is based upon perturbation of normal penile development. The mouse has been previously used as a model of hypospadias, despite an unacceptably wide range of definitions for this malformation. The current paper presents objective criteria and a definition of mouse hypospadias. Accordingly, diethylstilbestrol (DES) induced penile malformations were examined at 60 days postnatal (P60) in mice treated with DES over the age range of 12 days embryonic to 20 days postnatal (E12-P20). DES-induced hypospadias involves malformation of the urethral meatus, which is most severe in DES E12-P10, DES P0-P10 and DES P5-P15 groups, and less so or absent in the other treatment groups. A frenulum-like ventral tether between the penis and the prepuce was seen in the most severely affected DES-treated mice. Internal penile morphology was also altered in the DES E12-P10, DES P0-P10 and DES P5-P15 groups (with little effect in the other DES treatment groups). Thus, adverse effects of DES are a function of the period of DES treatment and most severe in the P0-P10 period. In "estrogen mutant mice" (NERKI, βERKO, αERKO and AROM+) hypospadias was only seen in AROM+ male mice having genetically-engineered elevation is serum estrogen. Significantly, mouse hypospadias was only seen distally at and near the urethral meatus where epithelial fusion events are known to take place and never in the penile midshaft, where urethral formation occurs via an entirely different morphogenetic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriane Watkins Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Joel Shen
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Paul Cooke
- Department of Physiological Sciences, University of Florida, Gainsville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Gail Risbridger
- Monash Institute of Reproduction and Development, Monash University, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States.
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Investigation of sexual dimorphisms through mouse models and hormone/hormone-disruptor treatments. Differentiation 2016; 91:78-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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35
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Sinclair AW, Cao M, Baskin L, Cunha GR. Diethylstilbestrol-induced mouse hypospadias: "window of susceptibility". Differentiation 2016; 91:1-18. [PMID: 26810244 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This review presents published and novel results that define the programming window for diethylstilbestrol (DES)-induced abnormal development of the mouse penis. These data indicate that DES has its greatest effect during the period of most intense penile morphogenesis, namely postnatal days 0-15 (P0-P15). Pregnant mice and their neonatal pups were injected subcutaneously with 200 ng/gbw DES every other day from embryonic day 12-18 (DES E12-E18), postnatal day 0-10 (DES P0-P10), embryonic day 12 to postnatal day 10 (DES E12-P10), postnatal day 5-15 (DES P5-P15), and postnatal day 10-20 (DES P10-P20). Aged-matched controls received sesame oil vehicle. After euthanasia at 10, 15, 20 and 60 days, penises were analyzed by gross morphology, histology and morphometry. Penises of all 5 groups of DES-treated mice were reduced in size, which was confirmed by morphometric analysis of internal penile structures. The most profound effects were seen in the DES E12-P10, DES P0-P10, and DES P5-P15 groups, thus defining a DES "programming window". For all parameters, DES treatment from P10 to P20 showed the most mild of effects. Adverse effects of DES on the MUMP cartilage and erectile bodies observed shortly after the last DES injection reverted to normality in the DES P5-P15, but not in the E12-P10 and P0-P10 groups, in which MUMP cartilage and erectile body malformations persisted into adulthood, again emphasizing a "window of susceptibility" in the early neonatal period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriane Watkins Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States.
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Timing of androgen receptor disruption and estrogen exposure underlies a spectrum of congenital penile anomalies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E7194-203. [PMID: 26598695 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1515981112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital penile anomalies (CPAs) are among the most common human birth defects. Reports of CPAs, which include hypospadias, chordee, micropenis, and ambiguous genitalia, have risen sharply in recent decades, but the causes of these malformations are rarely identified. Both genetic anomalies and environmental factors, such as antiandrogenic and estrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), are suspected to cause CPAs; however, little is known about the temporal window(s) of sensitivity to EDCs, or the tissue-specific roles and downstream targets of the androgen receptor (AR) in external genitalia. Here, we show that the full spectrum of CPAs can be produced by disrupting AR at different developmental stages and in specific cell types in the mouse genital tubercle. Inactivation of AR during a narrow window of prenatal development results in hypospadias and chordee, whereas earlier disruptions cause ambiguous genitalia and later disruptions cause micropenis. The neonatal phase of penile development is controlled by the balance of AR to estrogen receptor α (ERα) activity; either inhibition of androgen or augmentation of estrogen signaling can induce micropenis. AR and ERα have opposite effects on cell division, apoptosis, and regulation of Hedgehog, fibroblast growth factor, bone morphogenetic protein, and Wnt signaling in the genital tubercle. We identify Indian hedgehog (Ihh) as a novel downstream target of AR in external genitalia and show that conditional deletion of Ihh inhibits penile masculinization. These studies reveal previously unidentified cellular and molecular mechanisms by which antiandrogenic and estrogenic signals induce penile malformations and demonstrate that the timing of endocrine disruption can determine the type of CPA.
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Georgas KM, Armstrong J, Keast JR, Larkins CE, McHugh KM, Southard-Smith EM, Cohn MJ, Batourina E, Dan H, Schneider K, Buehler DP, Wiese CB, Brennan J, Davies JA, Harding SD, Baldock RA, Little MH, Vezina CM, Mendelsohn C. An illustrated anatomical ontology of the developing mouse lower urogenital tract. Development 2015; 142:1893-908. [PMID: 25968320 DOI: 10.1242/dev.117903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Malformation of the urogenital tract represents a considerable paediatric burden, with many defects affecting the lower urinary tract (LUT), genital tubercle and associated structures. Understanding the molecular basis of such defects frequently draws on murine models. However, human anatomical terms do not always superimpose on the mouse, and the lack of accurate and standardised nomenclature is hampering the utility of such animal models. We previously developed an anatomical ontology for the murine urogenital system. Here, we present a comprehensive update of this ontology pertaining to mouse LUT, genital tubercle and associated reproductive structures (E10.5 to adult). Ontology changes were based on recently published insights into the cellular and gross anatomy of these structures, and on new analyses of epithelial cell types present in the pelvic urethra and regions of the bladder. Ontology changes include new structures, tissue layers and cell types within the LUT, external genitalia and lower reproductive structures. Representative illustrations, detailed text descriptions and molecular markers that selectively label muscle, nerves/ganglia and epithelia of the lower urogenital system are also presented. The revised ontology will be an important tool for researchers studying urogenital development/malformation in mouse models and will improve our capacity to appropriately interpret these with respect to the human situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kylie M Georgas
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Jane Armstrong
- Center for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Janet R Keast
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Christine E Larkins
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Kirk M McHugh
- Centre for Molecular and Human Genetics, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital and Division of Anatomy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43205/10, USA
| | - E Michelle Southard-Smith
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Martin J Cohn
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA Department of Biology, Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | | | - Hanbin Dan
- Columbia University, Department of Urology, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Kerry Schneider
- Columbia University, Department of Urology, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Dennis P Buehler
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Carrie B Wiese
- Division of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Jane Brennan
- Center for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Jamie A Davies
- Center for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Simon D Harding
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Richard A Baldock
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Melissa H Little
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Chad M Vezina
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Cathy Mendelsohn
- Columbia University, Department of Urology, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Cunha GR, Sinclair A, Risbridger G, Hutson J, Baskin LS. Current understanding of hypospadias: relevance of animal models. Nat Rev Urol 2015; 12:271-80. [DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2015.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Mahawong P, Sinclair A, Li Y, Schlomer B, Rodriguez E, Ferretti MM, Liu B, Baskin LS, Cunha GR. Prenatal diethylstilbestrol induces malformation of the external genitalia of male and female mice and persistent second-generation developmental abnormalities of the external genitalia in two mouse strains. Differentiation 2014; 88:51-69. [PMID: 25449352 PMCID: PMC4254634 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Potential trans-generational influence of diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure emerged with reports of effects in grandchildren of DES-treated pregnant women and of reproductive tract tumors in offspring of mice exposed in utero to DES. Accordingly, we examined the trans-generational influence of DES on development of external genitalia (ExG) and compared effects of in utero DES exposure in CD-1 and C57BL/6 mice injected with oil or DES every other day from gestational days 12 to 18. Mice were examined at birth, and on 5-120 days postnatal to evaluate ExG malformations. Of 23 adult (>60 days) prenatally DES-exposed males, features indicative of urethral meatal hypospadias (see text for definitions) ranged from 18% to 100% in prenatally DES-exposed CD-1 males and 31% to 100% in prenatally DES-exposed C57BL/6 males. Thus, the strains differed only slightly in the incidence of male urethral hypospadias. Ninety-one percent of DES-exposed CD-1 females and 100% of DES-exposed C57BL/6 females had urethral-vaginal fistula. All DES-exposed CD-1 and C57BL/6 females lacked an os clitoris. None of the prenatally oil-treated CD-1 and C57BL/6 male and female mice had ExG malformations. For the second-generation study, 10 adult CD-1 males and females, from oil- and DES-exposed groups, respectively, were paired with untreated CD-1 mice for 30 days, and their offspring evaluated for ExG malformations. None of the F1 DES-treated females were fertile. Nine of 10 prenatally DES-exposed CD-1 males sired offspring with untreated females, producing 55 male and 42 female pups. Of the F2 DES-lineage adult males, 20% had exposed urethral flaps, a criterion of urethral meatal hypospadias. Five of 42 (11.9%) F2 DES lineage females had urethral-vaginal fistula. In contrast, all F2 oil-lineage males and all oil-lineage females were normal. Thus, prenatal DES exposure induces malformations of ExG in both sexes and strains of mice, and certain malformations are transmitted to the second-generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phitsanu Mahawong
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Yi Li
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Bruce Schlomer
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Esequiel Rodriguez
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Max M Ferretti
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Baomei Liu
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States.
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Mahawong P, Sinclair A, Li Y, Schlomer B, Rodriguez E, Ferretti MM, Liu B, Baskin LS, Cunha GR. Comparative effects of neonatal diethylstilbestrol on external genitalia development in adult males of two mouse strains with differential estrogen sensitivity. Differentiation 2014; 88:70-83. [PMID: 25449353 PMCID: PMC4254630 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2014.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The effect of neonatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a potent synthetic estrogen, was examined to evaluate whether the CD-1 (estrogen insensitive, outbred) and C57 (estrogen sensitive, inbred) mouse strains differ in their response to estrogen disruption of male ExG differentiation. CD-1 and C57BL/6 litters were injected with sesame oil or DES (200 ng/g/5 μl in sesame oil vehicle) every other day from birth to day 10. Animals were sacrificed at the following time points: birth, 5, 10 and 60 days postnatal. Neonatally DES-treated mice from both strains had many ExG abnormalities that included the following: (a) severe truncation of the prepuce and glans penis, (b) an abnormal urethral meatus, (c) ventral tethering of the penis, (d) reduced os penis length and glans width, (e) impaired differentiation of cartilage, (f) absence of urethral flaps, and (g) impaired differentiation of erectile bodies. Adverse effects of DES correlated with the expression of estrogen receptors within the affected tissues. While the effects of DES were similar in the more estrogen-sensitive C57BL/6 mice versus the less estrogen-sensitive CD-1 mice, the severity of DES effects was consistently greater in C57BL/6 mice. We suggest that many of the effects of DES, including the induction of hypospadias, are due to impaired growth and tissue fusion events during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phitsanu Mahawong
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Adriane Sinclair
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Yi Li
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Bruce Schlomer
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Esequiel Rodriguez
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Max M Ferretti
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Baomai Liu
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Laurence S Baskin
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Division of Pediatric Urology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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Development of the external genitalia: perspectives from the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Differentiation 2014; 87:4-22. [PMID: 24582573 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This review/research paper summarizes data on development of the external genitalia of the spotted hyena, a fascinating mammal noted for extreme masculinization of the female external genitalia. The female spotted hyena is the only extant mammal that mates and gives birth through a pendulous penis-like clitoris. Our studies indicate that early formation of the phallus in both males and females is independent of androgens; indeed the phallus forms before the fetal testes or ovaries are capable of synthesizing androgens. Likewise, pre- and postnatal growth in length of the penis and clitoris is minimally affected by "androgen status". Nonetheless, several internal morphologies, as well as external surface features of the phallus, are androgen-dependent and thus account for dimorphism between the penis and clitoris. Finally, estrogens play a critical role in penile and clitoral development, specifying the position of the urethral orifice, determining elasticity of the urethral meatus, and facilitating epithelial-epithelial fusion events required for proper formation of the distal urethra/urogenital sinus and prepuce. Accordingly, prenatal inhibition of estrogen synthesis via administration of letrozole (an aromatase inhibitor) leads to malformations of the glans as well as the prepuce (hypospadias). The effects of prenatal androgens, anti-androgens and impaired estrogen synthesis correlated with the tissue expression of androgen and estrogen receptors.
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Ipulan LA, Suzuki K, Matsushita S, Suzuki H, Okazawa M, Jacinto S, Hirai SI, Yamada G. Development of the external genitalia and their sexual dimorphic regulation in mice. Sex Dev 2014; 8:297-310. [PMID: 24503953 DOI: 10.1159/000357932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of the external genitalia is divided into 2 developmental stages: the formation and growth of a bipotential genital tubercle (GT) and the sexual differentiation of the male and female GT. The sexually dimorphic processes, which occur during the second part of GT differentiation, are suggested to be governed by androgen signaling and more recently crosstalk with other signaling factors. The process of elucidating the regulatory mechanisms of hormone signaling towards other signaling networks in the GT is still in its early stages. Nevertheless, it is becoming a productive area of research. This review summarizes various studies on the development of the murine GT and the defining characteristics of a masculinized GT and presents the different signaling pathways possibly involved during masculinization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lerrie Ann Ipulan
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University (WMU), Wakayama, Japan
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Renfree MB, Chew KY, Shaw G. Inducing sex reversal of the urogenital system of marsupials. Differentiation 2014; 87:23-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Low androgen induced penile maldevelopment involves altered gene expression of biomarkers of smooth muscle differentiation and a key enzyme regulating cavernous smooth muscle cell tone. J Urol 2013; 192:267-73. [PMID: 24316094 DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2013.11.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We determined the effects of low androgens in the neonatal period on biomarkers of smooth muscle cell differentiation, Myh11 and Acta2, and on Pde5A expression in the penis. MATERIALS AND METHODS One-day-old pups were treated daily with the gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist antide with or without dihydrotestosterone for 1 to 6 days. Tissues were collected at age day 7 and at adulthood at age 120 days. Penes were examined by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Testes were assayed for the intratesticular testosterone and steroidogenic enzymes Cyp17α1 and StAR. RESULTS Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist exposure suppressed the neonatal testicular testosterone surge 70% to 80%. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction revealed 80% to 90% reductions in Cyp17α1 and StAR protein, and 40% to 60% reductions in Myh11 and ACTA2 as a result of gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist compared to controls. Dihydrotestosterone co-administration mitigated these decreases. Western blot confirmed the Myh11 decrease at the protein level. Immunohistochemistry of Acta2 confirmed cavernous smooth muscle cell loss at the tissue level. Also, gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist exposure decreased Pde5a expression and dihydrotestosterone co-administration mitigated the decrease. Comparison of data between 2 parts of the penis body (corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum) showed that antagonist induced decreases in Myh11, Acta2 and Pde5a expression occurred only in the corpora cavernosa, implying that the latter is the target site of low androgen action. CONCLUSIONS As evidenced by gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist induced suppression of the neonatal testosterone surge and reduced steroidogenesis, low androgens in the neonatal period altered gene expression of biomarkers of smooth muscle cell differentiation. This led to loss of cavernous smooth muscle cells and consequently to penile maldevelopment.
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Blaschko SD, Mahawong P, Ferretti M, Cunha TJ, Sinclair A, Wang H, Schlomer BJ, Risbridger G, Baskin LS, Cunha GR. Analysis of the effect of estrogen/androgen perturbation on penile development in transgenic and diethylstilbestrol-treated mice. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2013; 296:1127-41. [PMID: 23653160 DOI: 10.1002/ar.22708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Because both androgens and estrogens have been implicated in penile morphogenesis, we evaluated penile morphology in transgenic mice with known imbalance of androgen and estrogen signaling using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), histology, and immunohistochemistry of androgen and estrogen receptors α/β. Penises of adult wild-type, estrogen receptor-α knockout (αERKO), estrogen receptor-β knockout (βERKO), aromatase knockout (Arom-KO), and aromatase overexpression (Arom+) mice were evaluated, as well as adult mice treated with diethylstilbestrol (DES) from birth to day 10. Adult penises were examined because the adult pattern is the endpoint of development. The urethral orifice is formed by fusion of the MUMP (male urogenital mating protuberance) with the MUMP ridge, which consists of several processes fused to each other and to the MUMP. Similarly, the internal prepuce is completed ventrally by fusion of a ventral cleft. In adult murine penises the stromal processes that form the MUMP ridge are separated from their neighbors by clefts. αERKO, βERKO, and Arom-KO mice have penises with a MUMP ridge clefting pattern similar to that of wild-type mice. In contrast, Arom+ mice and neonatally DES-treated mice exhibit profound malformations of the MUMP, MUMP ridge clefting pattern, and internal prepuce. Abnormalities observed in Arom+ and neonatally DES-treated mice correlate with the expression of estrogen receptor-beta (ERβ) in the affected structures. This study demonstrates that formation of the urethal orifice and internal prepuce is due to fusion of separate epithelial-surfaced mesenchymal elements, a process dependent upon both androgen and estrogen signaling, in which ERβ signaling is strongly implicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah D Blaschko
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, A610 San Francisco, California, USA
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Schlomer BJ, Feretti M, Rodriguez E, Blaschko S, Cunha G, Baskin L. Sexual differentiation in the male and female mouse from days 0 to 21: a detailed and novel morphometric description. J Urol 2013; 190:1610-7. [PMID: 23473905 DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2013.02.3198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We hypothesized that a significant portion of sexual differentiation of mouse external genitalia occurs postnatally. To establish a baseline of normal development to which genital abnormalities could be compared, we determined morphometric measurements and morphological descriptions of the postnatal period of sexual differentiation in mice from birth to 21 days postnatally. MATERIALS AND METHODS The external genitalia of male and female CD-1® mice were serially sectioned for histological staining. Mice were studied by age group, including ages 0 to 1, 2 to 3, 4 to 5, 10 and 21 days. Three-dimensional reconstructions were created to visually compare differences. Morphometric measurements were made of the distal mouse external genitalia and compared across age groups, and between males and females. RESULTS The morphology of male and female mouse external genitalia is similar at 0 to 1 days but undergoes dramatic changes during 21 days. The changes include the development of mesenchymal extensions, which in males form the male urogenital mating protuberance and erectile bodies, as well as comparable structures in females. Differences in morphometric measurements in homologous males and females became pronounced during 0 to 21 days, serving as a baseline for recognizing the genesis of malformations of the mouse external genitalia. CONCLUSIONS Male and female mouse external genitalia are similar morphologically and morphometrically at birth but achieve dramatic differences by age 21 days, suggesting that a significant portion of sexual differentiation in the mouse occurs after birth. We described these changes using novel, accurate morphometric measurements and 3-dimensional reconstruction. These results will be useful for studying abnormal sexual development of the mouse external genitalia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce J Schlomer
- Department of Urology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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