Navigating albumin-based nanoparticles through various drug delivery routes

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The recent emergence of nanomedicine has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape and necessitated the creation of more sophisticated drug delivery systems. Polymeric nanoparticles sit at the forefront of numerous promising drug delivery designs, due to their unmatched control over physiochemical properties such as size, shape, architecture, charge, and surface functionality. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles have the ability to navigate various biological barriers to precisely target specific sites within the body, encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic cargo and efficiently release this cargo in response to internal and external stimuli. However, despite these remarkable advantages, the presence of polymeric nanoparticles in wider clinical application is minimal. This review will provide a comprehensive understanding of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. The biological barriers affecting drug delivery will be outlined first, followed by a comprehensive description of the various nanoparticle designs and preparation methods, beginning with the polymers on which they are based. The review will meticulously explore the current performance of polymeric nanoparticles against a myriad of diseases including cancer, viral and bacterial infections, before finally evaluating the advantages and crucial challenges that will determine their wider clinical potential in the decades to come.

Inflammation-Targeted Drug Delivery Strategies via Albumin-Based Systems

Albumin, being the most abundant serum protein, has the potential to significantly enhance the physicochemical properties of therapeutic payloads, thereby improving their pharmacological effects. Apart from its passive transport via the enhanced permeability and retention effect, albumin can actively accumulate in tumor microenvironments or inflammatory tissues via receptor-mediated processes. This unique property makes albumin a promising scaffold for targeted drug delivery. This review focuses on exploring different delivery strategies that combine albumin with drug payloads to achieve targeted therapy for inflammatory diseases. Also, albumin-derived therapeutic products on the market or undergoing clinical trials in the past decade have been summarized to gain insight into the future development of albumin-based drug delivery systems. Given the involvement of inflammation in numerous diseases, drug delivery systems utilizing albumin demonstrate remarkable advantages, including enhanced properties, improved in vivo behavior and efficacy. Albumin-based drug delivery systems have been demonstrated in clinical trials, while more advanced strategies for improving the capacity of drug delivery systems with the help of albumin remain to be discovered. This could pave the way for biomedical applications in more effective and precise treatments.

Self-assembly of maltose-albumin nanoparticles for efficient targeting delivery and therapy in liver cancer

The effective delivery and targeted release of drugs within tumor cells are critical factors in determining the therapeutic efficacy of nanomedicine. To achieve this objective, a conjugate of maltose (Mal) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was synthesized by the Maillard reaction and self-assembled into nanoparticles with active-targeting capabilities upon pH/heating induction. This nanoparticle could be effectively loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) to form stable nanodrugs (Mal-BSA/DOX) that were sensitive to low pH or high glutathione (GSH), thereby achieving a rapid drug release (96.82 % within 24 h). In vitro cell experiments indicated that maltose-modified BSA particles efficiently enhance cellular internalization via glucose transporters (GLUT)-mediated endocytosis, resulting in increased intracellular DOX levels and heightened expression of γ-H2AX. Consequently, these results ultimately lead to selective tumor cells death, as evidenced by an IC50 value of 3.83 μg/mL in HepG2 cells compared to 5.87 μg/mL in 293t cells. The efficacy of Mal-BSA/DOX in tumor targeting therapy has been further confirmed by in vivo studies, as it effectively delivered a higher concentration of DOX to tumor tissue. This targeted delivery approach not only reduces the systemic toxicity of DOX but also effectively inhibits tumor growth (TGI, 75.95 %). These findings contribute valuable insights into the advancement of targeting-albumin nanomedicine and further support its potential in tumor treatment.

Applications of human and bovine serum albumins in biomedical engineering: A review

Serum albumin, commonly recognized as a predominant major plasma protein, is ubiquitously distributed among vertebrates, demonstrating versatility and widespread accessibility. Numerous studies have discussed the composition and attributes of human and bovine serum albumin; nonetheless, few systematic and comprehensive summaries on human and bovine serum albumin exist. This paper reviews the applications of human and bovine serum albumin in biomedical engineering. First, we introduce the differences in the structure of human and bovine serum albumin. Next, we describe the extraction methods for human and bovine serum albumin (fractionation process separation, magnetic adsorption, reverse micellar (RM) extraction, and genetic engineering) and the advantages and disadvantages of recently developed extraction methods. The characteristics of different processing forms of human and bovine serum albumin are also discussed, concomitantly elucidating their intrinsic properties, functions, and applications in biomedicine. Notably, their pivotal functions as carriers for drugs and tissue-engineered scaffolds, as well as their contributions to cell reproduction and bioimaging, are critically examined. Finally, to provide guidance for researchers in their future work, this review summarizes the current state of human and bovine serum albumin research and outlines potential future research topics.

Role of Albumin as a Targeted Drug Carrier in the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Comprehensive Review

An endogenous transporter protein called albumin interacts with the Fc receptor to provide it with multiple substrate-binding domains, cell membrane receptor activation, and an extended circulating half-life. Albumin has the remarkable ability to bind with receptors viz. secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) and scavenger protein-A (SR-A) that are overexpressed during rheumatoid arthritis (RA), enabling active targeting of the disease site instead of requiring specialized substrates to be added to the nanocarrier. RA, a chronic autoimmune illness, is characterized by the presence of a severe inflammatory response. RA patients have low serum albumin concentration, which signifies the high uptake of albumin at the inflammatory sites, giving a rationale to use albumin as a drug carrier for RA therapy. Albumin has the capacity for both passive and active targeting. It is an abundantly available protein in the bloodstream showing excellent cellular compatibility, degradability in biological tissues, nonantigenicity, and safety. There are three strategies of albumin mediated drug delivery as encapsulating therapeutics in albumin nanoparticles, chemically conjugating drugs with functional proteins, and albumin itself which is used as a targeting ligand to deliver drugs specifically to cells or tissues that express albumin-binding receptors. In the current review, an attempt has been made to highlight the significant evidence of albumin as a drug delivery carrier for the safe and effective management of RA. Evidence has been provided in the form of recent research advances, clinical trials, and patents. Additionally, this review will outline the prospective for the potential utilization of albumin as a drug vehicle for RA and suggest possible future avenues to provide the perspective for subsequent studies.

Current research trends of nanomedicines

Owing to the inherent shortcomings of traditional therapeutic drugs in terms of inadequate therapeutic efficacy and toxicity in clinical treatment, nanomedicine designs have received widespread attention with significantly improved efficacy and reduced non-target side effects. Nanomedicines hold tremendous theranostic potential for treating, monitoring, diagnosing, and controlling various diseases and are attracting an unfathomable amount of input of research resources. Against the backdrop of an exponentially growing number of publications, it is imperative to help the audience get a panorama image of the research activities in the field of nanomedicines. Herein, this review elaborates on the development trends of nanomedicines, emerging nanocarriers, in vivo fate and safety of nanomedicines, and their extensive applications. Moreover, the potential challenges and the obstacles hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines are also discussed. The elaboration on various aspects of the research trends of nanomedicines may help enlighten the readers and set the route for future endeavors.

Human Serum Albumin Nanoparticles as a Carrier of 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol via Intramuscular Injection to Alleviate Cyclophosphamide-Induced Myelosuppression

Myelosuppression is a prevalent and potentially life-threatening side effect during chemotherapy. As the main active component of ginseng, 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD) is capable of relieving myelosuppression by restoring hematopoiesis and immunity. In this study, PPD was encapsulated in human albumin nanoparticles (PPD-HSA NPs) by nanoparticle albumin-bound (Nab) technology for intramuscular injection to optimize its pharmacokinetic properties and promote recovery of myelosuppression. The prepared PPD-HSA NPs had a particle size of about 280 nm with a narrow size distribution. PPD dispersed as an amorphous state within the PPD-HSA NPs, and the NPs exhibited in vitro sustained release behavior. PPD-HSA NPs showed a favorable pharmacokinetic profile with high absolute bioavailability, probably due to the fact that NPs entered into the blood circulation via lymphatic circulation and were eliminated slowly. In vivo distribution experiments demonstrated that PPD-HSA NPs were mainly distributed in the liver and spleen, but a strong fluorescence signal was also found in the inguinal lymph node, indicating drug absorption via a lymph route. The myelosuppressive model was established using cyclophosphamide as the inducer. Pharmacodynamic studies confirmed that PPD-HSA NPs were effective in promoting the level of white blood cells. Moreover, the neutrophil and lymphocyte counts were significantly higher in the PPD-HSA NPs group compared with the control group. This preliminary investigation revealed that PPD-HSA NPs via intramuscular administration may be an effective intervention strategy to alleviate myelosuppression.

Proteolytic Resistance Determines Albumin Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Properties and Increases Cathepsin B, D, and G Expression

Proteolytic activity is pivotal in maintaining cell homeostasis and function. In pathological conditions such as cancer, it covers a key role in tumor cell viability, spreading to distant organs, and response to the treatment. Endosomes represent one of the major sites of cellular proteolytic activity and very often represent the final destination of internalized nanoformulations. However, little information about nanoparticle impact on the biology of these organelles is available even though they represent the major location of drug release. In this work, we generated albumin nanoparticles with a different resistance to proteolysis by finely tuning the amount of cross-linker used to stabilize the carriers. After careful characterization of the particles and measurement of their degradation in proteolytic conditions, we determined a relationship between their sensitivity to proteases and their drug delivery properties. These phenomena were characterized by an overall increase in the expression of cathepsin proteases regardless of the different sensitivity of the particles to proteolytic degradation.

Nanomedicine in therapeutic warfront against estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in women worldwide. Almost 70-80% of cases of BC are curable at the early non-metastatic stage. BC is a heterogeneous disease with different molecular subtypes. Around 70% of breast tumors exhibit estrogen-receptor (ER) expression and endocrine therapy is used for the treatment of these patients. However, there are high chances of recurrence in the endocrine therapy regimen. Though chemotherapy and radiation therapy have substantially improved survival rates and treatment outcomes in BC patients, there is an increased possibility of the development of resistance and dose-limiting toxicities. Conventional treatment approaches often suffer from low bioavailability, adverse effects due to the non-specific action of chemotherapeutics, and low antitumor efficacy. Nanomedicine has emerged as a conspicuous strategy for delivering anticancer therapeutics in BC management. It has revolutionized the area of cancer therapy by increasing the bioavailability of the therapeutics and improving their anticancer efficacy with reduced toxicities on healthy tissues. In this article, we have highlighted various mechanisms and pathways involved in the progression of ER-positive BC. Further, different nanocarriers delivering drugs, genes, and natural therapeutic agents for surmounting BC are the spotlights of this article.

Drug Delivery Strategies for the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic cancer is fast becoming a global menace and it is projected to be the second leading cause of cancer-related death by 2030. Pancreatic adenocarcinomas, which develop in the pancreas' exocrine region, are the predominant type of pancreatic cancer, representing about 95% of total pancreatic tumors. The malignancy progresses asymptomatically, making early diagnosis difficult. It is characterized by excessive production of fibrotic stroma known as desmoplasia, which aids tumor growth and metastatic spread by remodeling the extracellular matrix and releasing tumor growth factors. For decades, immense efforts have been harnessed toward developing more effective drug delivery systems for pancreatic cancer treatment leveraging nanotechnology, immunotherapy, drug conjugates, and combinations of these approaches. However, despite the reported preclinical success of these approaches, no substantial progress has been made clinically and the prognosis for pancreatic cancer is worsening. This review provides insights into challenges associated with the delivery of therapeutics for pancreatic cancer treatment and discusses drug delivery strategies to minimize adverse effects associated with current chemotherapy options and to improve the efficiency of drug treatment.

Therapeutic efficacy of albendazole and berberine loaded on bovine serum albumin nanoparticles on intestinal and muscular phases of experimental trichinellosis

There has been no treatment for trichinellosis until now. Therefore, this work targeted to investigating the efficacy of albendazole and berberine alone and loaded on bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoparticles against intestinal and muscular phases of trichinellosis in mice. Mice were divided into nine different groups: negative control, positive control, blank nanoparticle, albendazole, berberine, a combination of albendazole and berberine, albendazole-loaded nanoparticle, berberine-loaded nanoparticle and combination of albendazole and berberine-loaded nanoparticle. Subsequently, they were sacrificed 6 and 35 days after infection. Treatment efficacies were parasitologically, histopathologically and, immunohistochemically assessed. Parasitological counting for the adult worms and encysted larvae with histopathological assessment using H&E for intestinal and muscular sections and picrosirius red stain for muscular sections were used. Also, immunohistochemical expression of the intestinal nod-like receptor-pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) was investigated. The group treated with nano_combined drugs showed a statistically significant reduction in adult and encysted larval count (p<0.005), a remarkable improvement of intestinal and muscular inflammation, and a reduction in the capsular thickness of the larvae. Also, this group showed the highest reduction of NLRP3 expression. This work revealed that berberine might be a promising anti-trichinellosis drug with a synergistic effect when combined with albendazole through modulation of the immune response, inflammation, and larva capsule formation. Furthermore, delivering both drugs in a nanoparticle form improves their therapeutic response.

Nanotechnology as a tool to overcome macromolecules delivery issues

Nanocarriers can deliver drugs to specific organs or cells, potentially bridging the gap between a drug's function and its interaction with biological systems such as human physiology. The untapped potential of nanotechnology stems from its ability to manipulate materials, allowing control over physical and chemical properties and overcoming drug-related problems, e.g., poor solubility or poor bioavailability. For example, most protein drugs are administered parenterally, each with challenges and peculiarities. Some problems faced by bioengineered macromolecule drugs leading to poor bioavailability are short biological half-life, large size and high molecular weight, low permeability through biological membranes, and structural instability. Nanotechnology emerges as a promising strategy to overcome these problems. Nevertheless, the delivery system should be carefully chosen considering loading efficiency, physicochemical properties, production conditions, toxicity, and regulations. Moving from the bench to the bedside is still one of the major bottlenecks in nanomedicine, and toxicological issues are the greatest challenges to overcome. This review provides an overview of biotech drug delivery approaches, associated nanotechnology novelty, toxicological issues, and regulations.

Sustained Drug Release from Smart Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy: A Comprehensive Review

Although nanomedicine has been highly investigated for cancer treatment over the past decades, only a few nanomedicines are currently approved and in the market; making this field poorly represented in clinical applications. Key research gaps that require optimization to successfully translate the use of nanomedicines have been identified, but not addressed; among these, the lack of control of the release pattern of therapeutics is the most important. To solve these issues with currently used nanomedicines (e.g., burst release, systemic release), different strategies for the design and manufacturing of nanomedicines allowing for better control over the therapeutic release, are currently being investigated. The inclusion of stimuli-responsive properties and prolonged drug release have been identified as effective approaches to include in nanomedicine, and are discussed in this paper. Recently, smart sustained release nanoparticles have been successfully designed to safely and efficiently deliver therapeutics with different kinetic profiles, making them promising for many drug delivery applications and in specific for cancer treatment. In this review, the state-of-the-art of smart sustained release nanoparticles is discussed, focusing on the design strategies and performances of polymeric nanotechnologies. A complete list of nanomedicines currently tested in clinical trials and approved nanomedicines for cancer treatment is presented, critically discussing advantages and limitations with respect to the newly developed nanotechnologies and manufacturing methods. By the presented discussion and the highlight of nanomedicine design criteria and current limitations, this review paper could be of high interest to identify key features for the design of release-controlled nanomedicine for cancer treatment.

Permeation of albumin through the skin depending on its concentration and the substrate used in simulated conditions in vivo

OBJECTIVE

Many drugs applied to the skin with a systemic effect do not have a therapeutic effect, due to the barrier posed by the complex structure of the skin. To counteract this, absorption promoters are often added to the drug formulation. The use of albumin as an effective drug carrier is increasingly being addressed. Albumin, a natural, non-toxic polymer, can target drugs to specific cells and extend their biological half-life. This study was designed to trace the permeation of albumin after topical administration to the skin as a potential carrier of therapeutic substances.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Four dermal formulations based on different polymers were prepared: methyl cellulose, sodium alginate, hypromellose and chitosan with methyl cellulose, obtaining final concentrations of albumin of 2%, 1.5% and 1%. The permeation of albumin through the skin was examined under simulated in vivo conditions.

RESULTS

Most albumin permeated from the methylcellulose-based hydrogel. Depending on the concentration of albumin, permeation profiles were plotted and permeation rate constant and AUC_(0-24 h) were calculated.

CONCLUSION

Methylcellulose was the optimal polymer for albumin release, whereas hypromellose was the least favorable. The concentration of albumin influences the amount and rate of permeation of this protein. The optimal concentration was 10 mg/g, from which the most albumin penetrated and the fastest. Human skin appeared to be more permeable to albumin than pig skin. However, the similar permeation profile through both membranes successfully allows the use of pig skin to track and evaluate the permeation of therapeutic substances with systemic effects.

Nanocarriers for intracellular co-delivery of proteins and small-molecule drugs for cancer therapy

In the past few decades, the combination of proteins and small-molecule drugs has made tremendous progress in cancer treatment, but it is still not satisfactory. Because there are great differences in molecular weight, water solubility, stability, pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and the ways of release and action between macromolecular proteins and small-molecule drugs. To improve the efficacy and safety of tumor treatment, people are committed to developing protein and drug co-delivery systems. Currently, intracellular co-delivery systems have been developed that integrate proteins and small-molecule drugs into one nanocarrier via various loading strategies. These systems significantly improve the blood stability, half-life, and biodistribution of proteins and small-molecule drugs, thus increasing their concentration in tumors. Furthermore, proteins and small-molecule drugs within these systems can be specifically targeted to tumor cells, and are released to perform functions after entering tumor cells simultaneously, resulting in improved effectiveness and safety of tumor treatment. This review summarizes the latest progress in protein and small-molecule drug intracellular co-delivery systems, with emphasis on the composition of nanocarriers, as well as on the loading methods of proteins and small-molecule drugs that play a role in cells into the systems, which have not been summarized by others so far.

Chitosan-coated bovine serum albumin nanoparticles for topical tetrandrine delivery in glaucoma: in vitro and in vivo assessment

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness. Therapies available suffer from several drawbacks including low bioavailability, repeated administration and poor patient compliance with adverse effects thereafter. In this study, bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA-NPs) coated with chitosan(CS) were developed for the topical delivery of tetrandrine (TET) for glaucoma management. Optimized nanoparticles were prepared by desolvation. pH, BSA, CS and cross-linking agent concentrations effects on BSA-NPs colloidal properties were investigated. CS-BSA-NPs with particle size 237.9 nm and zeta potential 24 mV was selected for further evaluation. EE% exceeded 95% with sustained release profile. In vitro mucoadhesion was evaluated based on changes in viscosity and zeta potential upon incubation with mucin. Ex vivo transcorneal permeation was significantly enhanced for CS coated formulation. In vitro cell culture studies on corneal stromal fibroblasts revealed NPs biocompatibility with enhanced cellular uptake and improved antioxidant and anti-proliferative properties for the CS-coated formulation. Moreover, BSA-NPs were nonirritant as shown by HET-CAM test. Also, bioavailability in rabbit aqueous humor showed 2-fold increase for CS-TET-BSA-NPs compared to TET with a sustained reduction in intraocular pressure in a rabbit glaucoma model. Overall, results suggest CS-BSA-NPs as a promising platform for topical ocular TET delivery in the management of glaucoma.

Current understandings and clinical translation of nanomedicines for breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers that is threatening women's life. Current clinical treatment regimens for breast cancer often involve neoadjuvant and adjuvant systemic therapies, which somewhat are associated with unfavorable features. Also, the heterogeneous nature of breast cancers requires precision medicine that cannot be fulfilled by a single type of systemically administered drug. Taking advantage of the nanocarriers, nanomedicines emerge as promising therapeutic agents for breast cancer that could resolve the defects of drugs and achieve precise drug delivery to almost all sites of primary and metastatic breast tumors (e.g. tumor vasculature, tumor stroma components, breast cancer cells, and some immune cells). Seven nanomedicines as represented by Doxil® have been approved for breast cancer clinical treatment so far. More nanomedicines including both non-targeting and active targeting nanomedicines are being evaluated in the clinical trials. However, we have to realize that the translation of nanomedicines, particularly the active targeting nanomedicines is not as successful as people have expected. This review provides a comprehensive landscape of the nanomedicines for breast cancer treatment, from laboratory investigations to clinical applications. We also highlight the key advances in the understanding of the biological fate and the targeting strategies of breast cancer nanomedicine and the implications to clinical translation.

Recent Advancements in Serum Albumin-Based Nanovehicles Toward Potential Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Recently, drug delivery vehicles based on nanotechnology have significantly attracted the attention of researchers in the field of nanomedicine since they can achieve ideal drug release and biodistribution. Among the various organic or inorganic materials that used to prepare drug delivery vehicles for effective cancer treatment, serum albumin-based nanovehicles have been widely developed and investigated due to their prominent superiorities, including good biocompatibility, high stability, nontoxicity, non-immunogenicity, easy preparation, and functionalization, allowing them to be promising candidates for cancer diagnosis and therapy. This article reviews the recent advances on the applications of serum albumin-based nanovehicles in cancer diagnosis and therapy. We first introduce the essential information of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and human serum albumin (HSA), and discuss their drug loading strategies. We then discuss the different types of serum albumin-based nanovehicles including albumin nanoparticles, surface-functionalized albumin nanoparticles, and albumin nanocomplexes. Moreover, after briefly discussing the application of serum albumin-based nanovehicles used as the nanoprobes in cancer diagnosis, we also describe the serum albumin-based nanovehicle-assisted cancer theranostics, involving gas therapy, chemodynamic therapy (CDT), phototherapy (PTT/PDT), sonodynamic therapy (SDT), and other therapies as well as cancer imaging. Numerous studies cited in our review show that serum albumin-based nanovehicles possess a great potential in cancer diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

Nanomedicine for increasing the oral bioavailability of cancer treatments

Abstract

Oral administration is an appealing route of delivering cancer treatments. However, the gastrointestinal tract is characterized by specific and efficient physical, chemical, and biological barriers that decrease the bioavailability of medications, including chemotherapeutics. In recent decades, the fields of material science and nanomedicine have generated several delivery platforms with high potential for overcoming multiple barriers associated to oral administration. This review describes the properties of several nanodelivery systems that improve the bioavailability of orally administered therapeutics, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages in generating successful anticancer oral nanomedicines.

Graphical Abstract

Modelling and Control of Corticotropin Permeation from Hydrogels across a Natural Membrane in the Presence of Albumin

(1) Background: Skin is a difficult barrier to overcome, especially for molecules with masses greater than 500 Da. It has been suggested that albumin may contribute to more effective penetration of many therapeutic substances. In this study, an attempt was made to use albumin in semi-solid formulations to increase the skin penetration of another peptide—corticotropin (ACTH). (2) Methods: Hydrogels were prepared at two concentrations: 15 mg/g and 20 mg/g corticotropin, then albumin was added to them in different stoichiometric ratios. The degree of ACTH release from hydrogels, both with and without albumin addition, was investigated. For selected hydrogels the process of corticotropin permeation through a model membrane, i.e., pig skin, was examined. (3) Results: The study of corticotropin release showed that the addition of albumin, depending on its amount, may delay or increase the release process. Similarly, a study of ACTH permeation through porcine skin showed that albumin can delay or increase and accelerate ACTH permeation. (4) Conclusions: Hydrogel, applicated on the skin surface, may prove to be a beneficial and convenient solution for patients. It is an innovative way of application ACTH that bypasses the gastrointestinal tract and may result in increased availability of the peptide and its efficacy.

Nanomaterials Manipulate Macrophages for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, progressive, and systemic inflammatory autoimmune disease, characterized by synovial inflammation, synovial lining hyperplasia and inflammatory cell infiltration, autoantibody production, and cartilage/bone destruction. Macrophages are crucial effector cells in the pathological process of RA, which can interact with T, B, and fibroblast-like synovial cells to produce large amounts of cytokines, chemokines, digestive enzymes, prostaglandins, and reactive oxygen species to accelerate bone destruction. Therefore, the use of nanomaterials to target macrophages has far-reaching therapeutic implications for RA. A number of limitations exist in the current clinical therapy for patients with RA, including severe side effects and poor selectivity, as well as the need for frequent administration of therapeutic agents and high doses of medication. These challenges have encouraged the development of targeting drug delivery systems and their application in the treatment of RA. Recently, obvious therapeutic effects on RA were observed following the use of various types of nanomaterials to manipulate macrophages through intravenous injection (active or passive targeting), oral administration, percutaneous absorption, intraperitoneal injection, and intra-articular injection, which offers several advantages, such as high-precision targeting of the macrophages and synovial tissue of the joint. In this review, the mechanisms involved in the manipulation of macrophages by nanomaterials are analyzed, and the prospect of clinical application is also discussed. The objective of this article was to provide a reference for the ongoing research concerning the treatment of RA based on the targeting of macrophages.

Natural Phyto-Antioxidant Albumin Nanoagents to Treat Advanced Alzheimer's Disease

Phytotherapeutic approaches are of immense value in the treatment of advanced Alzheimer's disease (AD) because of their diverse biological components and potential multitarget mechanisms. In this study, quercetin, a natural neuroprotective flavonoid, was encapsulated in human serum albumin to obtain HSA@QC nanoparticles (HQ NPs) as a natural phyto-antioxidant albumin nanoagent for the treatment of advanced AD. HQ NPs showed excellent antioxidant effects and protected PC12 cells from H2O2-induced oxidative damage. The intranasal administration of HQ NPs in 11-month-old APP/PS1 mice, which represented advanced AD, effectively prevented the loss of body weight, increased survival rates, and significantly reduced oxidative stress, Aβ aggregation, neuronal apoptosis, and synaptic damage in the brain. It also ultimately reversed severely impaired cognitive function. In addition to their favorable anti-AD effects, HQ NPs exhibited excellent biosafety and biocompatibility owing to their natural composition and are expected to become an ideal choice for future drug development and clinical applications.

Hyaluronic-Coated Albumin Nanoparticles for the Non-Invasive Delivery of Apatinib in Diabetic Retinopathy

Purpose

Apatinib (Apa) is a novel anti-vascular endothelial growth factor with the potential to treat diabetic retinopathy (DR); a serious condition leading to visual impairment and blindness. DR treatment relies on invasive techniques associated with various complications. Investigating topical routes for Apa delivery to the posterior eye segment is thus promising but also challenging due to ocular barriers. Hence, the study objective was to develop Apa-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (Apa-BSA-NPs) coated with hyaluronic acid (HA); a natural polymer possessing unique mucoadhesive and viscoelastic features with the capacity to actively target CD44 positive retinal cells, for topical administration in DR.

Methods

Apa-BSA-NPs were prepared by desolvation using glutaraldehyde for cross-linking. HA-coated BSA-NPs were also prepared and HA: NPs ratio optimized. Nanoparticles were characterized for colloidal properties, entrapment efficiency (EE%), in vitro drug release and mucoadhesive potential. In vitro cytotoxicity on rabbit corneal epithelial cells (RCE) was assessed using MTT assay, while efficacy was evaluated in vivo in a diabetic rat model by histopathological examination of the retina by light and transmission electron microscopy. Retinal accumulation of fluorescently labeled BSA-NP and HA-BSA-NP was assessed using confocal microscope scanning.

Results

Apa-HA-BSA-NPs prepared under optimal conditions showed size, PdI and zeta potential: 222.2±3.56 nm, 0.221±0.02 and -37.3±1.8 mV, respectively. High EE% (69±1%), biphasic sustained release profile with an initial burst effect and mucoadhesion was attained. No evidence of cytotoxicity was observed on RCE cells. In vivo histopathological studies on DR rat model revealed alleviated retinal micro- and ultrastructural changes in the topical HA-Apa-BSA-NP treated eyes with normal basement membrane and retinal thickness comparable to normal control and intravitreally injected nanoparticles. Improved retinal accumulation for HA-BSA-NP was also observed by confocal microscopy.

Conclusion

Findings present HA-Apa-BSA-NPs as a platform for enhanced topical therapy of DR overcoming the devastating ocular complications of the intravitreal route.

Engineered nanoplex mediated targeted miRNA delivery to rescue dying podocytes in diabetic nephropathy

MicroRNAs (miRNA) is vital for gene expression regulation and normal kidney function. Mainly, miRNA-30a is responsible for the homeostasis of podocytes. In the diabetic nephropathic condition, miRNA-30a is directly and primarily suppressed by hyperglycemic kidney induced Notch signaling pathway leads to podocyte damage and apoptosis. Thus, transferring the exogenous miRNA-30a to podocytes might improve albuminuria as well as podocytes injury. The deprived stability, poor targetability, and low specificity in vivo are critical limitations to attain this objective. This investigation reports the specific and efficient delivery of miRNA-30a mimic via cyclo(RGDfC)-gated polymeric-nanoplexes with dendrimer templates to alleviate podocyte conditions. The nanoplexes able to protect RNase enzyme and to exhibit greater cellular uptake viaαvβ3 receptor selective binding in HG treated podocytes. The nanoplexes up-regulated the expression level of miRNA-30a and repress the elevated Notch-1 signaling in HG exposed podocytes. The critical results of in vivo experimentation attribute marked suppression of Notch-1 in streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic C57BL/6 mice and reduced glomerular expansion and fibrosis in the glomerular area. Developed nanoplexes represents an efficient platform for the targeted delivery of exogenous miRNA to podocytes. The approach developed herein could be extrapolated to other gene therapeutics and other kidney-related diseases.

Sustained Release Systems for Delivery of Therapeutic Peptide/Protein

Peptide/protein therapeutics have been significantly applied in the clinical treatment of various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, etc. owing to their high biocompatibility, specificity, and therapeutic efficacy. However, due to their immunogenicity, instability stemming from its complex tertiary and quaternary structure, vulnerability to enzyme degradation, and rapid renal clearance, the clinical application of protein/peptide therapeutics is significantly confined. Though nanotechnology has been demonstrated to prevent enzyme degradation of the protein therapeutics and thus enhance the half-life, issues such as initial burst release and uncontrollable release kinetics are still unsolved. Moreover, the traditional administration method results in poor patient compliance, limiting the clinical application of protein/peptide therapeutics. Exploiting the sustained-release formulations for more controllable delivery of protein/peptide therapeutics to decrease the frequency of injection and enhance patient compliance is thus greatly meaningful. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the substantial advancements of protein/peptide sustained-release systems in the past decades. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of all these sustained-release systems in clinical application together with their future challenges are also discussed in this review.

Nanobiomaterial-based vaccination immunotherapy of cancer

Cancer immunotherapies including cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint blockade or chimeric antigen receptor T cells have been exploited as the attractive treatment modalities in recent years. Among these approaches, cancer vaccines that designed to deliver tumor antigens and adjuvants to activate the antigen presenting cells (APCs) and induce antitumor immune responses, have shown significant efficacy in inhibiting tumor growth, preventing tumor relapse and metastasis. Despite the potential of cancer vaccination strategies, the therapeutic outcomes in preclinical trials are failed to promote their clinical translation, which is in part due to their inefficient vaccination cascade of five critical steps: antigen identification, antigen encapsulation, antigen delivery, antigen release and antigen presentation to T cells. In recent years, it has been demonstrated that various nanobiomaterials hold great potential to enhance cancer vaccination cascade and improve their antitumor performance and reduce the off-target effect. We summarize the cutting-edge advances of nanobiomaterials-based vaccination immunotherapy of cancer in this review. The various cancer nanovaccines including antigen peptide/adjuvant-based nanovaccines, nucleic acid-based nanovaccines as well as biomimetic nanobiomaterials-based nanovaccines are discussed in detail. We also provide some challenges and perspectives associated with the clinical translation of cancer nanovaccines.

Nano drug delivery systems in upper gastrointestinal cancer therapy

Upper gastrointestinal (GI) carcinomas are characterized as one of the deadliest cancer types with the highest recurrence rates. Their treatment is challenging due to late diagnosis, early metastasis formation, resistance to systemic therapy and complicated surgeries performed in poorly accessible locations. Current cancer medication face deficiencies such as high toxicity and systemic side-effects due to the non-specific distribution of the drug agent. Nanomedicine has the potential to offer sophisticated therapeutic possibilities through adjusted delivery systems. This review aims to provide an overview of novel approaches and perspectives on nanoparticle (NP) drug delivery systems for gastrointestinal carcinomas. Present regimen for the treatment of upper GI carcinomas are described prior to detailing various NP drug delivery formulations and their current and potential role in GI cancer theranostics with a specific emphasis on targeted nanodelivery systems. To date, only a handful of NP systems have met the standard of care requirements for GI carcinoma patients. However, an increasing number of studies provide evidence supporting NP-based diagnostic and therapeutic tools. Future development and strategic use of NP-based drug formulations will be a hallmark in the treatment of various cancers. This article seeks to highlight the exciting potential of novel NPs for targeted cancer therapy in GI carcinomas and thus provide motivation for further research in this field.

Serum albumin: clinical significance of drug binding and development as drug delivery vehicle

Human serum albumin, the primary transport and reservoir protein in the human circulatory system, interacts with numerous endogenous and exogenous ligands of varying structural characteristics. The mode of binding of drugs to albumin is central to understanding their pharmacokinetic profiles and has a major influence on their in vivo efficacy. Altered drug binding to albumin due to drug-drug interactions or abnormal physiology may result in marked changes in the active drug concentration, thus affecting its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. The propensity of drug-drug interaction to be clinically significant as well as possible exploitation of such interactions for therapeutic purposes is reviewed. Being the major organs of albumin metabolism, any impairment in the liver and kidney functions frequently alter the level of serum albumin, which affects the pharmacokinetic profiles of drugs and may have serious clinical implications. The natural function of serum albumin as a drug carrier is facilitated by its interaction with various cellular receptors. These receptors not only promote the uptake of drugs into cells but are also responsible for the extraordinarily long circulatory half-life of albumin. This property in combination with the presence of multiple ligand binding pockets have led to the emergence of serum albumin as an attractive vehicle for novel drug delivery systems. Here, we provide an overview of various albumin-based drug delivery strategies, classified according to their methods of drug attachment, and highlight their experimental and clinical successes.

Nanodelivery Systems for Topical Management of Skin Disorders

Topical drug delivery has inherent advantages over other administration routes. However, the existence of stratum corneum limits the diffusion to small and lipophilic drugs. Fortunately, the advancement of nanotechnology brings along opportunities to address this challenge. Taking the unique features in size and surface chemistry, nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, and framework nucleic acids have been used to bring drugs across the skin barrier to epidermis and dermis layers. This article reviews the development of these formulations and focuses on their applications in the treatment of skin disorders such as acne, skin inflammation, skin infection, and wound healing. Existing hurdles and further developments are also discussed.

Cyclo-RGD Truncated Polymeric Nanoconstruct with Dendrimeric Templates for Targeted HDAC4 Gene Silencing in a Diabetic Nephropathy Mouse Model

Diabetic nephropathy (DN), a chronic progressive kidney disease, is a significant complication of diabetes mellitus. Dysregulation of the histone deacetylases (HDACs) gene has been implicated in the pathogenesis of DN. Hence, the HDAC-inhibitors have emerged as a critical class of therapeutic agents in DN; however, the currently available HDAC4-inhibitors are mostly nonselective in nature as well as inhibit multiple HDACs. RNA interference of HDAC4 (HDAC4 siRNA) has shown immense promise, but the clinical translation has been impeded due to lack of a targeted, specific, and in vivo applicable delivery modality. In the present investigation, we examined Cyclo(RGDfC) (cRGD) truncated polymeric nanoplex with dendrimeric templates for targeted HDAC4 Gene Silencing. The developed nanoplex exhibited enhanced encapsulation of siRNA and offered superior protection against serum RNase nucleases degradation. The nanoplex was tested on podocytes (in vitro), wherein it showed selective binding to the αvβ3 integrin receptor, active cellular uptake, and significant in vitro gene silencing. The in vivo experiments showed remarkable suppression of the HDAC4 and inhibition in the progression of renal fibrosis in the Streptozotocin (STZ) induced DN C57BL/6 mice model. Histopathological and toxicological studies revealed nonsignificant abnormality/toxicity with the nanoplex. Conclusively, nanoplex was found as a promising tactic for targeted therapy of podocytes and could be extended for other kidney-related ailments.

Preparation, radiolabeling with 99mTc and 67Ga and biodistribution studies of albumin nanoparticles covered with polymers

OBJECTIVE

To optimize radiolabeling with ^99mTc and ⁶⁷Ga of albumin nanoparticles coated with 4 differents synthetic polymers and to evaluate their stability in vivo and in vitro, as well as their biodistribution in vivo after intravenous administration.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The nanoparticles were prepared using albumin and NOTA-modified albumin by the desolvation method and coated with 4 different polymers; HPMC, GMN2, GPM2 and GTM2. They were purified, lyophilized and characterized. Radiolabelling with ^99mTc was perfomed with 74 MBq of ^99mTc sodium pertechnetate, previously reduced with and acid solution of tin chloride at different concentrations (0.003, 0.005, 0.007, 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1mg/ml) and at different times (5, 10, 15, 30 and 60minutes) and temperatures (room temperature, 40°C and 60°C). Radiolabelling with ⁶⁷Ga was perfomed by incubation of the nanoparticles with 37 MBq of ⁶⁷Gallium chloride (obtained from commercial gallium-⁶⁷ citrate) at different times (10 and 30minutes) and temperatures (room temperature, 30°C and 60°C), and posterior purification with microconcentrators. The radiochemical purity was evaluated by TLC. Stability studies of radiolabeled nanoparticles in physiological serum and blood plasma were perfomed. Biodistribution studies of nanoparticles coated with GPM2 polymer were carried out in Wistar rats after intravenous administration of the nanoparticles. Control animals were carried out with ^99mTc sodium pertechnetate and ⁶⁷Ga chloride. To do so, the animals were killed and activity in organs was measured in a gamma counter.

RESULTS

^99mTc labeling was carried out optimally with a tin concentration of 0.007mg/ ml for the GPM2 nanoparticles and 0.005mg / ml for the rest of the formulations, with a radiolabelling time of 10minutes at room temperature. In the case of ⁶⁷Ga the label was optimized at 30° C temperature and 30minutes of incubation. In both cases the radiochemical purity obtained was greater than 97%. The nanoparticles showed high stability in vitro after 48hours of labeling (70% nanoparticles labeled with ^99mTc and 90% those labeled with ⁶⁷Ga). Biodistribution studies of nanoparticles ^99mTc -GPM2 and ⁶⁷Ga -NOTA-GPM2 showed a high accumulation of activity in the liver at 2 and 24hours after intravenous administration.

CONCLUSION

The labeling procedure with ^99mTc and ⁶⁷Ga of albumin and albumin modified with NOTA nanoparticles allows obtaining nanoparticles with high labeling yields and adequate in vitro stability, allowing their use for in vivo studies.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Therapeutic Application for Modulation of Lysosomal Ion Channels and Functions

Applications of nanoparticles in various fields have been addressed. Nanomaterials serve as carriers for transporting conventional drugs or proteins through lysosomes to various cellular targets. The basic function of lysosomes is to trigger degradation of proteins and lipids. Understanding of lysosomal functions is essential for enhancing the efficacy of nanoparticles-mediated therapy and reducing the malfunctions of cellular metabolism. The lysosomal function is modulated by the movement of ions through various ion channels. Thus, in this review, we have focused on the recruited ion channels for lysosomal function, to understand the lysosomal modulation through the nanoparticles and its applications. In the future, lysosomal channels-based targets will expand the therapeutic application of nanoparticles-associated drugs.

Improvement of efficacy and decrement cytotoxicity of oxaliplatin anticancer drug using bovine serum albumin nanoparticles: synthesis, characterisation and release behaviour

To sustained release of an anticancer drug, oxaliplatin (OX), a non-toxic and biocompatible nanocarrier based on bovine serum albumin (BSA) were synthesised by desolvation method and characterised using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and dynamic light scattering. The results showed that the BSA nanoparticles (BSANPs) with a mean magnitude of 187.9 ± 1.2 nm have spherical morphology with a smooth surface and a uniform distribution. Furthermore, OX was loaded onto the BSANPs and the loading was confirmed by FTIR, AFM and FESEM techniques. The percentage of encapsulation efficiency and drug loading were determined by absorption spectroscopy (UV-vis). The drug release studies showed that release of OX from BSANPs exhibited slower release rate. However, the release kinetics followed the first-order kinetic for both of them with the non-Fickian release behaviour. The electrochemical analysis showed stability of OX loaded onto the BSANPs (OX@BSANPs) and confirmed the diffusion mechanism. Furthermore, the results of MTT assay revealed increasing of normal cell viability and cancer cell death in the OX@BSANPs compared to only OX. It was shown that the BSANPs could be safely used as a biocompatible nanocarrier for the sustained release of OX.

Tumor Targeting Chemo- and Photodynamic Therapy Packaged in Albumin for Enhanced Anti-Tumor Efficacy

PURPOSE

Combination therapy for tumors is an important and promising strategy to improve therapeutic efficiency. This study aims at combining tumor targeting, chemo-, and photodynamic therapies to improve the anti-tumor performance.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Human serum albumin (HSA), as a nontoxic and biodegradable drug carrier, was used to load hydrophobic photosensitizers (mono-substituted β-4-pyridyloxy phthalocyanine zinc, mPPZ) by a dilution-incubation-purification (DIP) strategy to form molecular complex HSA:mPPZ. This complex was cross-linked as nanoparticles, and then chemotherapy drug doxorubicin (DOX) was adsorbed into the nanoparticles to achieve combined photodynamic therapy and chemotherapy. Next, the surface of the obtained composite was modified by a tumor surface receptor (urokinase receptor) targeting agent (ATF-HSA) using a noncovalent method to obtain the final product (ATF-HSA@HSA:mPPZ:DOX nanoparticles, AHmDN).

RESULTS

AHmDN exhibited strong stability, remarkable cytotoxicity and higher uptake to tumor cells. Cell imaging analysis indicated that DOX was separated from AHmDN and uniformly distributed in cell nucleus while mPPZ localized in cytoplasm. The PDT activity of all the samples had been confirmed by the detection of intracellular ROS. In animal experiments, AHmDN was demonstrated to have a prominent tumor-targeting effect using a 3D imaging system. In addition, the enhanced antitumor effect of AHmDN in tumor-bearing mice was also been observed. Importantly, the tumor-targeting effect of such nanoparticles lasted for about 14 days after one injection.

CONCLUSION

These albumin nanoparticles with combined functions of tumor targeting, chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy can highly enhance the anti-tumor effect. This drug delivery system can be applied to package other hydrophobic photosensitizers and chemotherapy drugs for improving therapeutic efficacy to tumors.

Methods for Reducing the Toxicity of Metal and Metal Oxide NPs as Biomedicine

The rapid development of medicine has forced equally rapid progress in the field of pharmaceuticals. In connection with the expensive and time-consuming process of finding new drugs, great emphasis is put on the design and use of metal and metal oxides nanoparticles in nanomedicine. The main focus is on comprehensive presentation of both physicochemical properties and the possibilities of using, in particular, silver (Ag) and gold (Au) nanoparticles, as well as zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles as drug carriers and in the treatment of cancer. An important element of this subject is the possibility of occurrence of toxic effects of these nanoparticles. For this reason, possible mechanisms of toxic actions are presented, as well as methods used to reduce their toxicity to ensure the safety of drug carriers based on these nanostructures.

Development and Mechanistic Insight into the Enhanced Cytotoxic Potential of Parvifloron D Albumin Nanoparticles in EGFR-Overexpressing Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal cancers, with an extremely poor prognosis. The development of more effective therapies is thus imperative. Natural origin compounds isolated from Plectranthus genus, such as parvifloron D (PvD), have cytotoxic and antiproliferative activity against human tumour cells. However, PvD is a very low water-soluble compound, being nanotechnology a promising alternative strategy to solve this problem. Therefore, the aim of this study was to optimize a nanosystem for preferential delivery of PvD to pancreatic tumour cells. Albumin nanoparticles (BSA NPs) were produced through a desolvation method. Glucose cross-linking and bioactive functionalization profiles of BSA platform were elucidated and analysed using static lattice atomistic simulations in vacuum. Using the optimized methodology, PvD was encapsulated (yield higher than 80%) while NPs were characterized in terms of size (100–400 nm) and morphology. Importantly, to achieve a preferential targeting to pancreatic cancer cells, erlotinib and cetuximab were attached to the PvD-loaded nanoparticle surface, and their antiproliferative effects were evaluated in BxPC3 and Panc-1 cell lines. Erlotinib conjugated NPs presented the highest antiproliferative effect toward pancreatic tumour cells. Accordingly, cell cycle analysis of the BxPC3 cell line showed marked accumulation of tumour cells in G1-phase and cell cycle arrest promoted by NPs. As a result, erlotinib conjugated PvD-loaded BSA NPs must be considered a suitable and promising carrier to deliver PvD at the tumour site, improving the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Method and its Composition for encapsulation, stabilization, and delivery of siRNA in Anionic polymeric nanoplex: An In vitro- In vivo Assessment

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) are synthetic RNA duplex designed to specifically knockdown the abnormal gene to treat a disease at cellular and molecular levels. In spite of their high potency, specificity, and therapeutic potential, the full-fledged utility of siRNA is predominantly limited to in vitro set-up. Till date, Onpattro is the only USFDA approved siRNA therapeutics available in the clinic. The lack of a reliable in vivo siRNA delivery carrier remains a foremost obstacle towards the clinical translation of siRNA therapeutics. To address the obstacles associated with siRNA delivery, we tested a dendrimer-templated polymeric approach involving a USFDA approved carrier (albumin) for in vitro as well as in vivo delivery of siRNA. The developed approach is simple in application, enhances the serum stability, avoids in vivo RNase-degradation and mediates cytosolic delivery of siRNA following the endosomal escape process. The successful in vitro and in vivo delivery of siRNA, as well as targeted gene knockdown potential, was demonstrated by HDAC4 inhibition in vitro diabetic nephropathy (DN) podocyte model as well as in vivo DN C57BL/6 mice model. The developed approach has been tested using HDAC4 siRNA as a model therapeutics, while the application can also be extended to other gene therapeutics including micro RNA (miRNA), plasmids oligonucleotides, etc.

Specific and Quantitative Detection of Albumin in Biological Fluids by Tetrazolate-Functionalized Water-Soluble AIEgens

The analysis of albumin has clinical significance in diagnostic tests and obvious value to research studies on the albumin-mediated drug delivery and therapeutics. The present immunoassay, instrumental techniques, and colorimetric methods for albumin detection are either expensive, troublesome, or insensitive. Herein, a class of water-soluble tetrazolate-functionalized derivatives with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) characteristics is introduced as novel fluorescent probes for albumin detection. They can be selectively lighted up by site-specific binding with albumin. The resulting albumin fluorescent assay exhibits a low detection limit (0.21 nM), high robustness in aqueous buffer (pH = 6-9), and a broad tunable linear dynamic range (0.02-3000 mg/L) for quantification. The tetrazolate functionality endows the probes with a superior water solubility (>0.01 M) and a high binding affinity to albumin (K_D = 0.25 μM). To explore the detection mechanism, three unique polar binding sites on albumin are computationally identified, where the multivalent tetrazolate-lysine interactions contribute to the tight binding and restriction of the molecular motion of the AIE probes. The key role of lysine residues is verified by the detection of poly-l-lysine. Moreover, we applied the fluorogenic method to quantify urinary albumin in clinical samples and found it a feasible and practical strategy for albumin analysis in complex biological fluids.

Nanoparticles for hematologic diseases detection and treatment

Nanotechnology, as an interdisciplinary science, combines engineering, physics, material sciences, and chemistry with the biomedicine knowhow, trying the management of a wide range of diseases. Nanoparticle-based devices holding tumor imaging, targeting and therapy capabilities are formerly under study. Since conventional hematological therapies are sometimes defined by reduced selectivity, low therapeutic efficacy and many side effects, in this review we discuss the potential advantages of the NPs' use in alternative/combined strategies. In the introduction the basic notion of nanomedicine and nanoparticles' classification are described, while in the main text nanodiagnostics, nanotherapeutics and theranostics solutions coming out from the use of a wide-ranging NPs availability are listed and discussed.

Chitosan coated human serum albumin nanoparticles: A promising strategy for nose-to-brain drug delivery

The aim of the present study was the development of human serum albumin nanoparticles (HSA NPs) as nose-to-brain carrier. To strengthen, the efficacy of nanoparticles as drug delivery system, the influence of chitosan (CS) coating on the performance of HSA NPs was investigated for nasal application. HSA NPs were prepared by desolvation technique. CS coating was obtained adding the CS solution to HSA NPs. The mean particle sizes was 241 ± 18 nm and 261 ± 8 nm and the ζ-potential was -47 ± 3 mV and + 45 ± 1 mV for HSA NPs and CS-HSA NPs, respectively. The optimized formulations showed excellent stability upon storage both as suspension and as freeze-dried product after 3 months. The mucoadhesion properties were assessed by turbidimetric and indirect method. NPs were loaded with sulforhodamine B sodium salt as model drug and the effect of CS coating was investigated performing release studies, permeation and uptake experiments using Caco-2 and hCMEC/D3 cells as model of the nasal epithelium and blood-brain barrier, respectively. Furthermore, ex vivo diffusion experiments have been carried out using rabbit nasal mucosa. Finally, the ability of the formulations to reversibly open tight and gap junctions was explored by western blotting and RT-PCR analyzing in both Caco-2 and hCMEC/D3 cells.