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Kestering-Ferreira É, Heberle BA, Sindermann Lumertz F, Gobira PH, Orso R, Grassi-Oliveira R, Viola TW. Sex differences in sensitivity to fentanyl effects in mice: Behavioral and molecular findings during late adolescence. Neurosci Lett 2024; 837:137898. [PMID: 39013536 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2024.137898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Sex differences play a crucial role in understanding vulnerability to opioid addiction, yet there have been limited preclinical investigations of this effect during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. The present study compared the behaviors of male and female rodents in response to fentanyl treatment and targeted molecular correlates in the striatum and medial prefrontal cortex. MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty adolescent C57BL/6J mice underwent a 1-week fentanyl treatment with an escalating dose. In addition to evaluating locomotor activity and anxiety-related parameters, we also assessed naloxone-induced fentanyl acute withdrawal jumps. We employed real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) to assess overall gene expression of dopaminergic receptors (Drd1, Drd2, Drd4 and Drd5) and the μ-opioid receptor Oprm1. The levels of epigenetic base modifications including 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) were assessed on CpG islands of relevant genes. RESULTS Females had higher locomotor activity than males after chronic fentanyl treatment, and they exhibited higher fentanyl withdrawal jumping behavior induced by naloxone. Females also presented lower Drd4 gene expression and DNA methylation (5mC + 5hmC) in the striatum. We found that locomotor activity and fentanyl withdrawal jumps were negatively correlated with Drd4 methylation and gene expression in the striatum, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggested that female mice displayed heightened sensitivity to the effects of fentanyl treatment during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. This effect may be associated with molecular alterations related to the Drd4 gene.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Fentanyl/pharmacology
- Male
- Female
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Sex Characteristics
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/genetics
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/metabolism
- Mice
- DNA Methylation/drug effects
- Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology
- Corpus Striatum/metabolism
- Corpus Striatum/drug effects
- Locomotion/drug effects
- Prefrontal Cortex/drug effects
- Prefrontal Cortex/metabolism
- Receptors, Dopamine/genetics
- Receptors, Dopamine/metabolism
- Naloxone/pharmacology
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/genetics
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/metabolism
- Epigenesis, Genetic/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Érika Kestering-Ferreira
- School of Medicine, Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Francisco Sindermann Lumertz
- School of Medicine, Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique Gobira
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Rodrigo Orso
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Rodrigo Grassi-Oliveira
- School of Medicine, Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Thiago Wendt Viola
- School of Medicine, Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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2
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Valentino RJ, Nair SG, Volkow ND. Neuroscience in addiction research. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2024; 131:453-459. [PMID: 37947883 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-023-02713-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
The prevention and treatment of addiction (moderate to severe substance use disorder-SUD) have remained challenging because of the dynamic and complex interactions between multiple biological and social determinants that shape SUD. The pharmacological landscape is ever changing and the use of multiple drugs is increasingly common, requiring an unraveling of pharmacological interactions to understand the effects. There are different stages in the trajectory from drug use to addiction that are characterized by distinct cognitive and emotional features. These are directed by different neurobiological processes that require identification and characterization including those that underlie the high co-morbidity with other disorders. Finally, there is substantial individual variability in the susceptibility to develop SUD because there are multiple determinants, including genetics, sex, developmental trajectories and times of drug exposures, and psychosocial and environmental factors including commercial determinants that influence drug availability. Elucidating how these factors interact to determine risk is essential for identifying the biobehavioral basis of addiction and developing prevention and treatment strategies. Basic research is tasked with addressing each of these challenges. The recent proliferation of technological advances that allow for genetic manipulation, visualization of molecular reactions and cellular activity in vivo, multiscale whole brain mapping across the life span, and the mining of massive data sets including multimodality human brain imaging are accelerating our ability to understand how the brain functions and how drugs influence it. Here, we highlight how the application of these tools to the study of addiction promises to illuminate its neurobiological basis and guide strategies for prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita J Valentino
- National Institute On Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Sunila G Nair
- National Institute On Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nora D Volkow
- National Institute On Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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3
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Butler-Struben HM, Kentner AC, Trainor BC. What's wrong with my experiment?: The impact of hidden variables on neuropsychopharmacology research. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:1285-1291. [PMID: 35338255 PMCID: PMC9117327 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01309-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The field of neuropsychopharmacology relies on behavioral assays to quantify behavioral processes related to mental illness and substance use disorders. Although these assays have been highly informative, sometimes laboratories have unpublished datasets from experiments that "didn't work". Often this is because expected outcomes were not observed in positive or negative control groups. While this can be due to experimenter error, an important alternative is that under-appreciated environmental factors can have a major impact on results. "Hidden variables" such as circadian cycles, husbandry, and social environments are often omitted in methods sections, even though there is a strong body of literature documenting their impact on physiological and behavioral outcomes. Applying this knowledge in a more critical manner could provide behavioral neuroscientists with tools to develop better testing methods, improve the external validity of behavioral techniques, and make better comparisons of experimental data across institutions. Here we review the potential impact of "hidden variables" that are commonly overlooked such as light-dark cycles, transport stress, cage ventilation, and social housing structure. While some of these conditions may not be under direct control of investigators, it does not diminish the potential impact of these variables on experimental results. We provide recommendations to investigators on which variables to report in publications and how to address "hidden variables" that impact their experimental results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amanda C Kentner
- School of Arts & Sciences, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Brian C Trainor
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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4
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Eitan S, Madison CA, Kuempel J. The self-serving benefits of being a good host: A role for our micro-inhabitants in shaping opioids' function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 127:284-295. [PMID: 33894242 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Opioids are highly efficacious in their ability to relieve pain, but they are liable for abuse, dependence, and addiction. Risk factors to develop opioid use disorders (OUD) include chronic stress, socio-environment, and preexisting major depressive disorders (MDD) and posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD). Additionally, opioids reduce gut motility, induce loss of gut barrier function, and alter the composition of the trillions of microbes hosted in the gastrointestinal tract, known as the gut microbiota. The microbiota are significant contributors to the reciprocal communication between the central nervous system (CNS) and the gut, termed the gut-brain axis. They have strong influences on their host behaviors, including the ability to cope with stress, sociability, affect, mood, and anxiety. Thus, they are implicated in the etiology of MDD and PTSD. Here we review the latest studies demonstrating that intestinal flora can, directly and indirectly, by affecting sociability levels, responses to stress, and mental state, alter the responses to opioids. It suggests that microbiota can potentially be used to increase the resilience to develop analgesic tolerance and OUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoshana Eitan
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Caitlin A Madison
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Jacob Kuempel
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
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5
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Windisch KA, Kreek MJ. Review of addiction risk potential associated with adolescent opioid use. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 198:173022. [PMID: 32871141 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is a critical period of development with robust behavioral, morphological, hormonal, and neurochemical changes including changes in brain regions implicated in the reinforcing effects of drugs such as opioids. Here we examine the preclinical and, where appropriate complementary clinical literature, for the behavioral and neurological changes induced by adolescent opioid exposure/use and their long-term consequences during adulthood. Adolescent opioid exposure results in a widened biphasic shift in reinforcement with increased impact of positive rewarding aspects during initial use and profound negative reinforcement during adulthood. Females may have enhanced vulnerability due to fast onset of antinociceptive tolerance and reduced severity of somatic withdrawal symptoms during adolescence. Overall, adolescent opioid exposure, be it legally prescribed protracted intake or illicit consumption, results in significant and prolonged consequences of increased opioid reward concomitant with reduced analgesic efficacy and exacerbated somatic withdrawal severity during opioid use/exposure in adulthood. These findings are highly relevant to physicians, parents, law makers, and the general public as adolescent opioid exposure/misuse results in heightened risk for substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle A Windisch
- Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - Mary Jeanne Kreek
- Laboratory of the Biology of Addictive Diseases, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
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6
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Emery MA, Akil H. Endogenous Opioids at the Intersection of Opioid Addiction, Pain, and Depression: The Search for a Precision Medicine Approach. Annu Rev Neurosci 2020; 43:355-374. [PMID: 32109184 PMCID: PMC7646290 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-110719-095912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Opioid addiction and overdose are at record levels in the United States. This is driven, in part, by their widespread prescription for the treatment of pain, which also increased opportunity for diversion by sensation-seeking users. Despite considerable research on the neurobiology of addiction, treatment options for opioid abuse remain limited. Mood disorders, particularly depression, are often comorbid with both pain disorders and opioid abuse. The endogenous opioid system, a complex neuromodulatory system, sits at the neurobiological convergence point of these three comorbid disease states. We review evidence for dysregulation of the endogenous opioid system as a mechanism for the development of opioid addiction and/or mood disorder. Specifically, individual differences in opioid system function may underlie differences in vulnerability to opioid addiction and mood disorders. We also review novel research, which promises to provide more detailed understanding of individual differences in endogenous opioid neurobiology and its contribution to opioid addiction susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Emery
- Michigan Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA;
| | - Huda Akil
- Michigan Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA;
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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7
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Madison CA, Wellman PJ, Eitan S. Pre-exposure of adolescent mice to morphine results in stronger sensitization and reinstatement of conditioned place preference than pre-exposure to hydrocodone. J Psychopharmacol 2020; 34:771-777. [PMID: 32489137 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120926675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Opioids are commonly prescribed to treat moderate-to-severe pain. However, their use can trigger the development of opioid use disorder. A major problem in treating opioid use disorder remains the high rate of relapse. AIM The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are differences among opioids in their ability to trigger relapse after pre-exposure during adolescence. METHODS On postnatal day 33, mice were examined for the acute locomotor response to saline, morphine, or hydrocodone (5 mg/kg). They were administered with the corresponding opioid or saline during postnatal days 34-38 (20 mg/kg) and 40-44 (40 mg/kg). On postnatal day 45, they were recorded for the development of locomotor sensitization (5 mg/kg). Starting on postnatal day 55, mice were examined for the acquisition (1, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg), extinction, and drug-induced reinstatement (1, 2.5, and 5 mg/kg) of conditioned place preference. RESULTS There were no significant differences in the acute locomotor response to morphine and hydrocodone. Morphine induced significantly stronger locomotor sensitization as compared to hydrocodone. Pre-exposure to morphine, but not hydrocodone, sensitized the acquisition of conditioned place preference. There were no significant differences in extinction rates. Mice pre-exposed to morphine reinstate conditioned place preference after priming with a 1 mg/kg dose. In contrast, higher priming doses were required for reinstatement in all other experimental groups. CONCLUSIONS Adolescent mice administered with morphine develop greater sensitization to its effects and subsequently reinstate conditioned place preference more readily than mice administered with hydrocodone. This suggests higher risk for relapse after pre-exposure to morphine during adolescence as compared to hydrocodone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin A Madison
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
| | - Paul J Wellman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
| | - Shoshana Eitan
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
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8
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9
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Tomek SE, Olive MF. Social Influences in Animal Models of Opiate Addiction. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2018; 140:81-107. [PMID: 30193710 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Opiate addiction has reached an epidemic prevalence in recent years, yet social influences on the use and abuse of opiates has been widely understudied. In particular, the neurobiological substrates of opiate addiction and their modulation by social influences are largely unknown, perhaps due to the lack of widespread incorporation of social variables into animal models of opiate addiction. As reviewed here, animal models such as oral and intravenous drug self-administration, conditioned place preference, behavioral sensitization, and the effects of various stressors, have been useful in identifying some of the neurochemical circuitry that mediate social influences on opiate addiction. However, it is clear from our review that newer paradigms that incorporate various social elements are greatly needed to provide more translational insights into the neurobiological basis of opiate addiction. These elements include social and environmental enrichment, presence of conspecifics, and procedures that require subjects to exert effort to engage in prosocial behavior. A wider implementation of social variables into animal models of opiate addiction will help inform neurobehavioral strategies to increase the efficacy of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seven E Tomek
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - M Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States.
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10
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Bates MLS, Hofford RS, Emery MA, Wellman PJ, Eitan S. The role of the vasopressin system and dopamine D1 receptors in the effects of social housing condition on morphine reward. Drug Alcohol Depend 2018; 188:113-118. [PMID: 29772497 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The association with opioid-abusing individuals or even the perception of opioid abuse by peers are risk factors for the initiation and escalation of abuse. Similarly, we demonstrated that morphine-treated animals housed with only morphine-treated animals (referred to as morphine only) acquire morphine conditioned place-preference (CPP) more readily than morphine-treated animals housed with drug-naïve animals (referred to as morphine cage-mates). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are still elusive. METHODS Mice received repeated morphine or saline while housed as saline only, morphine only, or cage-mates. Then, they were examined for the expression levels of D1 dopamine receptor (D1DR), D2 dopamine receptor (D2DR), dopamine transporter (DAT), oxytocin, and Arginine-vasopressin (AVP) in the striatum using qPCR. Additionally, we examined the effects of the AVP-V1b receptor antagonist, SSR149415, on the acquisition of morphine conditioned place-preference (CPP). RESULTS Increased striatal expression of D1DR and AVP was observed in morphine only animals, but not morphine cage-mates. No significant effects were observed on the striatal expression of D2DR, DAT, or oxytocin. Antagonizing the AVP-V1b receptors decreased the acquisition of morphine CPP in the morphine only mice, but did not alter the acquisition of morphine CPP in the morphine cage-mate mice. CONCLUSIONS Housing with drug-naïve animals protects against the increase in striatal expression of D1DR and AVP elicited by morphine exposure. Moreover, our studies suggest that the protective effect of housing with drug-naïve animals on the acquisition of morphine reward might be, at least partially, mediated by AVP.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Shawn Bates
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Rebeca S Hofford
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Michael A Emery
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Paul J Wellman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Shoshana Eitan
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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11
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Eitan S, Emery MA, Bates M, Horrax C. Opioid addiction: Who are your real friends? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 83:697-712. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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12
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Inhibiting social support from massage-like stroking increases morphine dependence. Behav Pharmacol 2017; 28:642-647. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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13
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-eighth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2015 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior, and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia, stress and social status, tolerance and dependence, learning and memory, eating and drinking, drug abuse and alcohol, sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology, mental illness and mood, seizures and neurologic disorders, electrical-related activity and neurophysiology, general activity and locomotion, gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions, cardiovascular responses, respiration and thermoregulation, and immunological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, United States.
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14
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Bates M, Emery M, Wellman P, Eitan S. Social environment alters opioid-induced hyperalgesia and antinociceptive tolerance in adolescent mice. Eur J Pain 2016; 20:998-1009. [DOI: 10.1002/ejp.825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M.L.S. Bates
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, and the Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience; Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University; College Station TX 77843 USA
| | - M.A. Emery
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, and the Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience; Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University; College Station TX 77843 USA
| | - P.J. Wellman
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, and the Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience; Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University; College Station TX 77843 USA
| | - S. Eitan
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, and the Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience; Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University; College Station TX 77843 USA
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