Comparative transcriptomic analysis reveals novel insights into the response to Cr(VI) exposure in Cr(VI) tolerant ectomycorrhizal fungi Pisolithus sp. 1 LS-2017

Comparative transcriptome analysis of ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus albus in response to individual and combined stress of copper and cadmium

An ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus albus establishes the natural symbiosis with plant roots on extreme heavy metal (HM)-rich soil and enables their survival in toxic metal concentrations. Understanding P. albus key genes and pathways behind strong metal tolerance is crucial for its successful application in the rehabilitation of metal-contaminated barren lands. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the whole transcriptome profile of P. albus under individual and combined metal stress of copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd). At 480 µM Cu and 16 µM Cd toxic concentrations, P. albus has shown growth and survival and accumulated high metal (1.46 µg Cu and 1.13 µg Cd per mg of dry mycelia). The study found a stronger response of P. albus to single-metal stress in high concentration as compared to multi-metal stress in relatively lower concentration. Hence, the intensity of fungal response to HM stress is mainly determined by the metal concentration involved in stress. We have found a total of 11 pathways significantly associated with HM stress, among which amino acid, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolisms were highly affected. The functional enrichment of differentially expressed genes has shown the induced biosynthesis of arginine, melanin, metal chelating agents, membrane phospholipids, fatty acids, folate, pantothenate, ergothioneine, and other antioxidant agents; upregulation of zinc ion uptake, potassium transporters, and lysine degradation; and reduction of phosphatidylcholine degradation, incorrect protein folding, iron uptake, and potassium efflux as the top efficient tolerance mechanisms of P. albus against HM stress. The current study would contribute to understanding fungal HM tolerance and its further utilization in the bioremediation of metal-contaminated abandoned lands. The validation of RNA-sequencing analysis with RT-qPCR of selected genes showed the high credibility of the presented data.

A novel TF molecular switch-mechanism found in two contrasting ecotypes of a psammophyte, Agriophyllum squarrosum, in regulating transcriptional drought memory

BACKGROUND

Prior drought stress may change plants response patterns and subsequently increase their tolerance to the same condition, which can be referred to as "drought memory" and proved essential for plants well-being. However, the mechanism of transcriptional drought memory in psammophytes remains unclear. Agriophyllum squarrosum, a pioneer species on mobile dunes, is widely spread in Northern China's vast desert areas with outstanding ability of water use efficiency. Here we conducted dehydration-rehydration treatment on A. squarrosum semi-arid land ecotype AEX and arid land ecotype WW to dissect the drought memory mechanism of A. squarrosum, and to determine the discrepancy in drought memory of two contrasting ecotypes that had long adapted to water heterogeneity.

RESULT

Physiological traits monitoring unveiled the stronger ability and longer duration in drought memory of WW than that of AEX. A total of 1,642 and 1,339 drought memory genes (DMGs) were identified in ecotype AEX and WW, respectively. Furthermore, shared DMGs among A. squarrosum and the previously studied species depicted that drought memory commonalities in higher plants embraced pathways like primary and secondary metabolisms; while drought memory characteristics in A. squarrosum were mainly related to response to heat, high light intensity, hydrogen peroxide, and dehydration, which might be due to local adaptation to desert circumstances. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) occupied the center of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network in drought memory transcription factors (TF), thus playing a key regulatory role in A. squarrosum drought memory. Co-expression analysis of drought memory TFs and DMGs uncovered a novel regulating module, whereby pairs of TFs might function as molecular switches in regulating DMG transforming between high and low expression levels, thus promoting drought memory reset.

CONCLUSION

Based on the co-expression analysis, protein-protein interaction prediction, and drought memory metabolic network construction, a novel regulatory module of transcriptional drought memory in A. squarrosum was hypothesized here, whereby recurrent drought signal is activated by primary TF switches, then amplified by secondary amplifiers, and thus regulates downstream complicated metabolic networks. The present research provided valuable molecular resources on plants' stress-resistance basis and shed light on drought memory in A. squarrosum.

Cloning of Nitrate Reductase and Nitrite Reductase Genes and Their Functional Analysis in Regulating Cr(VI) Reduction in Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Pisolithus sp.1

Assimilatory-type nitrate reductase (NR) and nitrite reductase (NiR) are the key enzymes that involve in nitrate assimilation and nitrogen cycling in microorganisms. NR and NiR with NADH or NADPH and FMN or FAD domains could be coupled to the reduction process of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] in microorganisms. A new assimilatory-type NR gene (named niaD) and a new assimilatory-type NiR gene (named niiA) are cloned, identified, and functionally characterized by 5′ and 3′ RACE, alignment, annotation, phylogenetic tree, and yeast mutant complementation analyses from Pisolithus sp.1, a dominant symbiotic ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) that can assist in phytoremediation. Assimilatory-type niaD and niiA were 2,754 bp and 3,468 bp and encode a polypeptide with 917 and 1,155 amino acid residues, respectively. The isoelectric points of NR (Pisolithus sp.1 NR) and NiR (Pisolithus sp.1 NiR) of Pisolithus sp.1 are 6.07 and 6.38, respectively. The calculated molecular mass of Pisolithus sp.1 NR and Pisolithus sp.1 NiR is 102.065 and 126.914 kDa, respectively. Yeast mutant complementation analysis, protein purification, and activities of NR and NiR under Cr treatment suggest that Pisolithus sp.1 NR is a functional NR that mediates Cr(VI) tolerance and reduction. The multiple alignment demonstrates that Pisolithus sp.1 NR is potentially a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-dependent flavin mononucleotide reductase and also Class II chromate reductase. Our results suggest that Pisolithus sp.1 NR plays a key role in Cr(VI) reduction in the EMF Pisolithus sp.1.

Physiological mechanism of the response to Cr(VI) in the aerobic denitrifying ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus sp.1

Pisolithus sp. 1 (P sp. 1) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus (EMF) with a strong Cr(VI) tolerance and reduction ability. The noninvasive microttest technique (NMT), real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR), and the three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix (3D-EEM) were used to deeply explore the physiological mechanism of the P sp. 1 response to Cr(VI) and investigate the relationship between Cr(VI) reduction and denitrification in P sp. Cr(VI) induced the strongest elevations in nitrate reductase (NR) activity and NO production in the mycelia after treatment with Cr(VI) for 48 h under aerobic conditions. The NR inhibitor tungstate significantly inhibited Cr(VI) reduction, proton efflux and the expression of the NR gene (niaD) and NiR gene (niiA). In addition, NO was generated via NR-regulated denitrification. Combined treatments with Cr(VI) and the NO scavenger carboxy-PTIO (cPTIO) significantly increased O₂^-, H₂O₂ and MDA contents and reduced SDH, CAT, GSH, GR and GSNOR activity. Therefore, the NR-driven aerobic denitrifying process requires protons, and the generated NO reduces the oxidative stress effect of Cr(VI) on mycelia by reducing ROS accumulation and lipid peroxidation, enhancing mycelial and CAT activity, and promoting GSH recycling and regeneration. Psp.1 can also secrete humic acid-like and protein-like substances to combine with Cr(III) in a culture system.

Role of Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis Behind the Host Plants Ameliorated Tolerance Against Heavy Metal Stress

Soil heavy metal (HM) pollution, which arises from natural and anthropogenic sources, is a prime threat to the environment due to its accumulative property and non-biodegradability. Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbiosis is highly efficient in conferring enhanced metal tolerance to their host plants, enabling their regeneration on metal-contaminated lands for bioremediation programs. Numerous reports are available regarding ECM fungal potential to colonize metal-contaminated lands and various defense mechanisms of ECM fungi and plants against HM stress separately. To utilize ECM–plant symbiosis successfully for bioremediation of metal-contaminated lands, understanding the fundamental regulatory mechanisms through which ECM symbiosis develops an enhanced metal tolerance in their host plants has prime importance. As this field is highly understudied, the present review emphasizes how plant’s various defense systems and their nutrient dynamics with soil are affected by ECM fungal symbiosis under metal stress, ultimately leading to their host plants ameliorated tolerance and growth. Overall, we conclude that ECM symbiosis improves the plant growth and tolerance against metal stress by (i) preventing their roots direct exposure to toxic soil HMs, (ii) improving plant antioxidant activity and intracellular metal sequestration potential, and (iii) altering plant nutrient uptake from the soil in such a way to enhance their tolerance against metal stress. In some cases, ECM symbiosis promotes HM accumulation in metal stressed plants simultaneous to improved growth under the HM dilution effect.

Mechanistic study for mutual interactions of Pb2+ and Trichoderma viride

Fungi play significant roles in the geochemical processes of heavy metals in the environment. However, the interaction between heavy metals and fungi, especially at the cellular level, is quite complicated and remains unknown. This study explored the mutual interaction mechanism between Pb²⁺ and Trichoderma viride by combining batch experiments, spectroscopy, and in vitro approaches. Batch experiments revealed that Pb²⁺ had toxic effect on T. viride, originally causing the biomass of T. viride decreased from 1.3 g in the control group to 0 g in the presence of 200 mg/L Pb²⁺. The difference in biomass further led to varied pH, even decreasing from 5.7 at the outset to 3.4 due to the acid-production properties of T. viride. Moreover, structural deformation and damage of T. viride mycelium appeared when exposed to Pb²⁺, and were more evident at a higher dose of Pb²⁺ exposure. The growth curve exhibited that T. viride gradually adapted to Pb²⁺ exposure, which related to Pb²⁺ exposure concentration. Further, intracellular and extracellular secretions of T. viride changed with varying exposure concentrations of Pb²⁺, indicating that T. viride adapted differently to different concentrations of Pb²⁺, and MT participated in the detoxification of T. viride. SEM-EDX showed that T. viride could bio-adsorb and bioaccumulate more Pb²⁺ when exposed to more Pb²⁺, which was closely related to the content of P. And carbonyl, phosphate, and amino groups of T. viride participated in the Pb²⁺ biosorption onto T. viride, as evidenced by FT-IR and XPS. Meanwhile, the biomineralization and reduction of Pb²⁺ by T. viride were observed by XRD and XPS, which might be a possible factor for Pb²⁺ biosorption and bioaccumulation. CLSM showed that the bio-adsorbed and bioaccumulated Pb²⁺ were mainly distributed in the membrane of T. viride mycelium.