The protective effect of biochanin A against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in mice involves enhancing of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and beclin-1 production

Hesperetin protects against rotenone-induced motor disability and neurotoxicity via the regulation of SIRT1/NLRP3 signaling

Rotenone is a pesticide that causes complex I inhibition and is widely known to induce motor disability and experimental Parkinson's disease (PD) in rodents. Evidence suggests a crucial role for sirtuin/nuclear factor-kappaB/nod-like receptor family, pyrin domain-containing 3 (SIRT1/NFκB/NLRP3) signaling and inflammation in PD and rotenone neurotoxicity. Hesperetin (C16H14O6) is a citrus flavonoid with documented anti-inflammatory activity. We investigated the value of hesperetin in delaying rotenone-induced PD in mice and the possible modulation of inflammatory burden. PD was induced in mice via rotenone injections. Groups were assigned as a vehicle, PD, or PD + hesperetin (50 or 100 mg/kg) and compared for the motor function, protein level (by ELISA), and gene expression (by real-time PCR) of the target proteins, histopathology, and immunohistochemistry for tyrosine hydroxylase enzyme. Hesperetin (50 or 100 mg/kg) alleviated the motor disability and the striatal dopamine level and decreased the expression of NLRP3 and NF-κB but increased SIRT1 expression (p < 0.05). Further, it enhanced the neural viability and significantly decreased neural degeneration in the substantia nigra, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex (p < 0.05). Taken together, we propose that hesperetin mediates its neuroprotective function via alleviating modulation of the SIRT1/NFκB/NLRP3 pathway. Therefore, hesperetin might delay the PD progression.

Harnessing Therapeutic Potentials of Biochanin A in Neurological Disorders: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Overview

Biochanin A, an isoflavone flavonoid with estrogenic activity, is naturally found in red clover and other legumes. It possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, neuroprotective, and anticancer effects. In recent years, a growing body of pre-clinical research has focused on exploring the therapeutic potential of biochanin A in various neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, ischemic brain injury, gliomas, and neurotoxicity. This comprehensive review aims to shed light on the underlying molecular mechanisms that contribute to the neuroprotective role of biochanin A based on previous pre-clinical studies. Furthermore, it provides a detailed overview of the protective effects of biochanin A in diverse neurological disorders. The review also addresses the limitations associated with biochanin A administration and discusses different approaches employed to overcome these challenges. Finally, it highlights the future opportunities for translating biochanin A from pre-clinical research to clinical studies while also considering its commercial viability as a dietary supplement or a potential treatment for various diseases.

Unveiling the neuroprotective properties of isoflavones: current evidence, molecular mechanisms and future perspectives

Neurodegenerative diseases encompass a wide range of debilitating and incurable brain disorders characterized by the progressive deterioration of the nervous system's structure and function. Isoflavones, which are naturally occurring polyphenolic phytochemicals, have been found to regulate various cellular signaling pathways associated with the nervous system. The main objective of this comprehensive review is to explore the neuroprotective effects of isoflavones, elucidate the underlying mechanisms, and assess their potential for treating neurodegenerative disorders. Relevant data regarding isoflavones and their impact on neurodegenerative diseases were gathered from multiple library databases and electronic sources, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Science Direct. Numerous isoflavones, including genistein, daidzein, biochanin A, and formononetin, have exhibited potent neuroprotective properties against various neurodegenerative diseases. These compounds have been found to modulate neurotransmitters, which in turn contributes to their ability to protect against neurodegeneration. Both in vitro and in vivo experimental studies have provided evidence of their neuroprotection mechanisms, which involve interactions with estrogenic receptors, antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory properties, anti-apoptotic activity, and modulation of neural plasticity. This review aims to provide current insights into the neuroprotective characteristics of isoflavones and shed light on their potential therapeutic applications in future clinical scenarios.

Rotenone activates the LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 signaling pathway to induce autophagy and apoptosis in rat thoracic aortic endothelial cells

BACKGROUND

The specific mechanism by which rotenone impacts thoracic aortic autophagy and apoptosis is unknown. We aimed to investigate the regulatory effects of rotenone on autophagy and apoptosis in rat thoracic aortic endothelial cells (RTAEC) via activation of the LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 signaling pathway and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of rotenone on autophagy and apoptosis in vascular endothelial cells.

METHODS

In vivo, 60 male SD rats were randomly selected and divided into 5 groups: control (Con), DMSO, 1, 2, and 4 mg/kg groups, respectively. After 28 days of treatment, histopathological and ultrastructural changes in each group were observed using HE and transmission electron microscopy; Autophagy, apoptosis, and LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 pathway-related proteins were detected by Western blot; Apoptosis levels in the thoracic aorta were detected by TUNEL. In vitro, RTAEC were cultured and divided into control (Con), DMSO, 20, 100, 500, and 1000 nM groups. After 24 h of intervention, autophagy, apoptosis, and LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 pathway-related factors were detected by Western blot and qRT-PCR; Flow cytometry to detect apoptosis levels; Autophagy was inhibited with 3-MA and CQ to detect apoptosis levels, and changes in autophagy, apoptosis, and downstream factors were detected by the AMPK inhibitor CC intervention.

RESULTS

Gavage in SD rats for 28 days, some degree of damage was observed in the thoracic aorta and heart of the rotenone group, as well as the appearance of autophagic vesicles was observed in the thoracic aorta. TUNEL analysis revealed higher apoptosis in the rotenone group's thoracic aorta; RTAEC cultured in vitro, after 24 h of rotenone intervention, showed increased ROS production and significantly decreased ATP production. The flow cytometry data suggested an increase in the number of apoptotic RTAEC. The thoracic aorta and RTAEC in the rotenone group displayed elevated levels of autophagy and apoptosis, and the LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 pathway proteins were activated and expressed at higher levels. Apoptosis and autophagy were both suppressed by the autophagy inhibitors 3-MA and CQ. The AMPK inhibitor CC reduced autophagy and apoptosis in RTAEC and suppressed the production of the AMPK downstream factors ULK1 and P-ULK1.

CONCLUSIONS

Rotenone may promote autophagy in the thoracic aorta and RTAEC by activating the LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 signaling pathway, thereby inducing apoptosis.

PI3K/AKT signaling activation by roflumilast ameliorates rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease in rats

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common progressive age-related neurodegenerative disorder. Paramount evidence shed light on the role of PI3K/AKT signaling activation in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. PI3K/AKT signaling can be activated via cAMP-dependent pathways achieved by phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibition. Roflumilast is a well-known PDE4 inhibitor that is currently used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Furthermore, roflumilast has been proposed as a favorable candidate for the treatment of neurological disorders. The current study aimed to unravel the neuroprotective role of roflumilast in the rotenone model of PD in rats. Ninety male rats were allocated into six groups as follows: control, rotenone (1.5 mg/kg/48 h, s.c.), L-dopa (22.5 mg/kg, p.o), and roflumilast (0.2, 0.4 or 0.8 mg/kg, p.o). All treatments were administrated for 21 days 1 h after rotenone injection. Rats treated with roflumilast showed an improvement in motor activity and coordination as well as preservation of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum. Moreover, roflumilast increased cAMP level and activated the PI3K/AKT axis via stimulation of CREB/BDNF/TrkB and SIRT1/PTP1B/IGF1 signaling cascades. Roflumilast also caused an upsurge in mTOR and Nrf2, halted GSK-3β and NF-ĸB, and suppressed FoxO1 and caspase-3. Our study revealed that roflumilast exerted neuroprotective effects in rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in rats. These neuroprotective effects were mediated via the crosstalk between CREB/BDNF/TrkB and SIRT1/PTP1B/IGF1 signaling pathways which activates PI3K/AKT trajectory. Therefore, PDE4 inhibition is likely to offer a reliable persuasive avenue in curing PD via PI3K/AKT signaling activation.

Biochanin A inhibits cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in vivo and in vitro

The heart undergoes pathological cardiac hypertrophy as an adaptive response to prolonged pathological stimulation, leading to cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, fibroblast proliferation, and an increase in extracellular matrix. Chinese medicine monomers are now receiving much attention for the treatment of cardiac hypertrophy and myocardial remodeling. Biochanin A (BCA) is a kind of flavonoid structural monomer, which has a certain therapeutic effect on bone thinning disease, aging syndrome, lung cancer, etc. Moreover, it exhibits hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidation, anti-bacteria and other pharmacological properties. It is still unknown whether BCA has an impact on the mechanism of TAC-induced cardiac hypertrophy. Here, cardiac remodeling was induced by TAC. BCA was injected intraperitoneally at 25 and 50 mg/kg/day one week in advance. Masson, WGA, DHE and other pathological staining and serum were used to detect the inhibitory effect of BCA on cardiac hypertrophy in mice. The anti-hypertrophic effect of BCA was demonstrated by studying the pathological manifestations of Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) and cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) in vitro. The results showed that BCA significantly reduced TAC-induced fibrosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and myocardial hypertrophy. BCA inhibited Ang II-induced cell hypertrophy and oxidative stress in NRCMs in vitro and Ang II-induced CF migration, proliferation, and collagen secretion. This suggests that BCA plays a key role in inhibiting the progression of myocardial remodeling, suggesting that BCA may be a promising agent for the treatment of myocardial hypertrophy and fibrosis.

Betanin improves motor function and alleviates experimental Parkinsonism via downregulation of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway: Molecular docking and biological investigations

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neuroinflammatory and degenerative disease. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective action of betanin in the rotenone-induced Parkinson-like mice model. Twenty-eight adult male Swiss albino mice were divided into four groups: Vehicle, Rotenone, Rotenone + Betanin 50 mg/kg, and Rotenone + Betanin 100 mg/kg. Parkinsonism was induced by subcutaneous injection of 9 doses of rotenone (1 mg/kg/48 h) plus betanin at 50 and 100 mg/kg/48 h in rotenone + betanin groups for twenty days. Motor dysfunction was assessed after the end of the therapeutic period using the pole, rotarod, open-field, grid, and cylinder tests. Malondialdehyde, reduced glutathione (GSH), Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation primary response-88 (MyD88), nuclear factor kappa- B (NF-κB), neuronal degeneration in the striatum were evaluated. In addition, we assessed the immunohistochemical densities of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in Str and in substantia nigra compacta (SNpc). Our results showed that rotenone remarkably decreased (results of tests), increased decreased TH density with a significant increase in MDA, TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, and a decrease in GSH (p < 0.05). Treatment with betanin significantly results of tests), increased TH density. Furthermore, betanin significantly downregulated malondialdehyde and improved GSH. Additionally, the expression of TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB was significantly alleviated. Betanin's powerful antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties can be related to its neuroprotective potential as well as its ability to delay or prevent neurodegeneration in PD.

Neuroprotective potential of biochanin-A and review of the molecular mechanisms involved

Biochanin-A is a naturally occurring plant phytoestrogen, which mimics specific the agonistic activity of estrogens. Biochanin-A is known to possess numerous activities, including neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities, along with the anticancer activity. Neuroinflammation is thought to play a pivotal pathological role in neurodegenerative disease. Sustained neuroinflammatory processes lead to progressive neuronal damage in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. Activation of PI3K/Akt cascade and inhibition of MAPK signaling cascade have been observed to be responsible for conferring protection against neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. An increased oxidative stress promotes neuronal apoptosis via potentiating the TLR-4/NF-κB and inhibiting PI3K/Akt signaling mediated increase in pro-apoptotic and decreases in antiapoptotic proteins. Various authors have explored biochanin-A's neuroprotective effect by using various cell lines and animal models. Biochanin-A has been reported to mediate its neuroprotective via reducing the level of oxidants, inflammatory mediators, MAPK, TLR-4, NF-κB, NADPH oxidase, AchE, COX-2 and iNOS. Whereas, it has been observed to increase the level of anti-oxidants, along with phosphorylation of PI3K and Akt proteins. The current review has been designed to provide insights into the neuroprotective effect of biochanin-A and possible signaling pathways leading to protection against neuroinflammation and apoptosis in the central nervous system. This review will be helpful in guiding future researchers to further explore biochanin A at a mechanistic level to obtain useful lead molecules.

Cilostazol novel neuroprotective mechanism against rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease in rats: Correlation between Nrf2 and HMGB1/TLR4/PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling

Neuroinflammation induced by activation of the high mobility group box 1/ toll-like receptor 4 (HMGB1/TLR4) axis is one of the principal mechanisms involved in dopaminergic neuronal loss in Parkinson's disease (PD), and its activation exacerbates oxidative stress augmenting neurodegeneration.

AIMS

This study investigated the novel neuroprotective effect of cilostazol on rotenone-intoxicated rats focusing on the HMGB1/TLR4 axis, erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Protein kinase B (Akt)/the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. The aim is extended to correlate the Nrf2 expression with all assessed parameters as promising therapeutic targets for neuroprotection.

MAIN METHODS

Our experiment was designed as follows: vehicle group, cilostazol group, rotenone group (1.5 mg/kg, s.c), and the rotenone pretreated with cilostazol (50 mg/kg, p.o.) group. Eleven rotenone injections were injected day after day, while cilostazol was administered daily for 21 days.

KEY FINDINGS

Cilostazol significantly improved the neurobehavioral analysis, the histopathological examination, and dopamine levels. Moreover, the immunoreactivity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) enhanced. These effects were associated with enhancement of the antioxidant expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 by 1.01 and 1.08-fold, respectively, and repression of HMGB1/TLR4 pathway by 50.2 % and 39.3 %, respectively. Upregulation of the neuro-survival PI3K and Akt expression by 2.26 and 2.69-fold, respectively, and readjusting mTOR overexpression.

SIGNIFICANCE

Cilostazol exerts a novel neuroprotective strategy against rotenone-induced neurodegeneration via activation of Nrf2/HO-1, suppression of HMGB1/TLR4 axis, upregulation of PI3K/Akt besides mTOR inhibition that compels more investigations with different PD models to clarify its precise role.

Neuroprotection impact of biochanin A against pentylenetetrazol-kindled mice: Targeting NLRP3 inflammasome/TXNIP pathway and autophagy modulation

Recurrent seizures characterize epilepsy, a complicated and multifaceted neurological disease. Several neurological alterations, such as cell death and the growth of gorse fibers, have been linked to epilepsy. The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is particularly vulnerable to neuronal loss and abnormal neuroplastic changes in the pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) kindling model. Biochanin A has potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, according to previous evidence and its possible impact in epilepsy has never previously been claimed. The current work aimed to investigate biochanin A's anti-epileptic potential in PTZ-induced kindling model in mice. Chronic epilepsy was established in mice by giving PTZ (35 mg/kg, i.p) every other day for 21 days. Biochanin A (20 mg/kg) was given daily till the end of the experiment. Biochanin A pretreatment significantly reduced the severity of epileptogenesis by 51.7% and downregulated the histological changes in the CA3 region of the hippocampus by 42% along with displaying antioxidant/anti-inflammatory efficacy through upregulated hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) and, erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) levels in the brain by 1.9-fold and 2-fold respectively, parallel to reduction of malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and L-glutamate/IL-1β/TXNIB/NLRP3 axis. Moreover, biochanin A suppressed neuronal damage by reducing the astrocytes' activation and significantly attenuated the PTZ-induced increase in LC3 levels by 55.5%. Furthermore, molecular docking findings revealed that BIOCHANIN A has a higher affinity for phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3k), threonine kinase2 (AKT2), and mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) indicating the neuroprotective and anti-epileptic characteristics of biochanin A in the brain tissue of PTZ-kindled mice.

Pesticides as a risk factor for cognitive impairment: Natural substances are expected to become alternative measures to prevent and improve cognitive impairment

Pesticides are the most effective way to control diseases, insects, weeds, and fungi. The central nervous system (CNS) is damaged by pesticide residues in various ways. By consulting relevant databases, the systemic relationships between the possible mechanisms of pesticides damage to the CNS causing cognitive impairment and related learning and memory pathways networks, as well as the structure-activity relationships between some natural substances (such as polyphenols and vitamins) and the improvement were summarized in this article. The mechanisms of cognitive impairment caused by pesticides are closely related. For example, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation can constitute three feedback loops that interact and restrict each other. The mechanisms of neurotransmitter abnormalities and intestinal dysfunction also play an important role. The connection between pathways is complex. NMDAR, PI3K/Akt, MAPK, Keap1/Nrf2/ARE, and NF-κB pathways can be connected into a pathway network by targets such as Ras, Akt, and IKK. The reasons for the improvement of natural substances are related to their specific structure, such as polyphenols with different hydroxyl groups. This review's purpose is to lay a foundation for exploring and developing more natural substances that can effectively improve the cognitive impairment caused by pesticides.

Methylmercury promotes oxidative stress and autophagy in rat cerebral cortex: Involvement of PI3K/AKT/mTOR or AMPK/TSC2/mTOR pathways and attenuation by N-acetyl-L-cysteine

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a potent neurotoxicant that could induce oxidative stress and autophagy. However, the underlying mechanisms through which MeHg affects the central nervous system have not been fully elucidated, and little has been known of the interaction between oxidative stress and autophagy. Therefore, rats were administrated with different MeHg concentrations to evaluate the neurotoxic effects and autophagy in cerebral cortex. Moreover, we have investigated the neuroprotective role of N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) against MeHg-induced neurotoxicity in order to estimate the regulation effects of oxidative stress on autophagy. A total of 64 rats, 40 of which were randomly divided into control and MeHg-treated (4, 8 and 12 μ mol/kg) groups. The remaining 24 rats were divided into control, NAC control (1 mmol/kg), 12 μ mol/kg MeHg, and NAC pretreatment. Administration of 12 μ mol/kg MeHg significantly increased behavioral and pathological abnormalities, and autophagy levels. In addition, the oxidative stress levels increased, together with abnormal expression of autophagy-related molecules. Pretreatment with NAC significantly prevented MeHg-induced oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR or AMPK/TSC2/mTOR-mediated autophagy. In conclusion, the present study suggested that oxidative stress can regulate autophagy through PI3K/AKT/mTOR or AMPK/TSC2/mTOR pathways. This study provides a theoretical basis for the study and treatment of MeHg-induced neurotoxicity.

Biochanin A as a modulator of the inflammatory response: an updated overview and therapeutic potential

Uncontrolled inflammation and failure to resolve the inflammatory response are crucial factors involved in the progress of inflammatory diseases. Current therapeutic strategies aimed at controlling excessive inflammation are effective in some cases, though they may be accompanied by severe side effects, such as immunosuppression. Phytochemicals as a therapeutic alternative can have a fundamental impact on the different stages of inflammation and its resolution. Biochanin A (BCA) is an isoflavone known for its wide range of pharmacological properties, especially its marked anti-inflammatory effects. Recent studies have provided evidence of BCA's abilities to activate events essential for resolving inflammation. In this review, we summarize the most recent findings from pre-clinical studies of the pharmacological effects of BCA on the complex signaling network associated with the onset and resolution of inflammation and BCA's potential protective functionality in several models of inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, pulmonary disease, neuroinflammation, and metabolic disease.

Omarigliptin attenuates rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease in rats: Possible role of oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress and immune modulation

The current study aimed to explore the potential neuroprotective effect of omarigliptin (OG), an antidiabetic drug that crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), in a Parkinson's disease (PD) rotenone-based rat-model. Results showed that OG attenuated motor impairment, histological aberrations, α-synuclein accumulation, and rescued the dopaminergic neurons in rotenone-administered rats. Furthermore, OG halted rotenone-induced oxidative stress; as shown by reduced lipid peroxidation, decline in the oxidative stress sensor (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) and its downstream heme oxygenase-1. In addition, OG abrogated neuroinflammation and apoptosis in rotenone-treated rats. Moreover, OG ameliorated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in rotenone-administered rats; as evidenced by reduced levels of ER resident proteins such as glucose-regulated protein 78, C/EBP homologous protein and apoptotic caspase-12. In conclusion, this study implies repurposing of OG, as a novel neuroprotective agent due to its antioxidant properties, its effects on ER stress in addition to its anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activities.

Chinmedomics Strategy for Elucidating the Pharmacological Effects and Discovering Bioactive Compounds From Keluoxin Against Diabetic Retinopathy

Keluoxin (KLX) is an active agent in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy (DR). However, its mechanism, targets, and effective constituents against DR are still unclear, which seriously restricts its clinical application. Chinmedomics has the promise of explaining the pharmacological effects of herbal medicines and investigating the effective mechanisms. The research results from electroretinography and electron microscope showed that KLX could reduce retinal dysfunction and pathological changes by the DR mouse model. Based on effectiveness, we discovered 64 blood biomarkers of DR by nontargeted metabolomics analysis, 51 of which returned to average levels after KLX treatment including leukotriene D4 and A4, l-tryptophan, 6-hydroxymelatonin, l-phenylalanine, l-tyrosine, and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). The metabolic pathways involved were phenylalanine metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, sphingolipid metabolism, etc. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase1/2 (ERK1/2), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), and protein 70 S6 kinase (p70 S6K) might be potential targets of KLX against DR. This was related to the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling and AMPK signaling pathways. We applied the chinmedomics strategy, integrating serum pharm-chemistry of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with metabolomics, to discover astragaloside IV (AS-IV), emodin, rhein, chrysophanol, and other compounds, which were the core effective constituents of KLX when against DR. Our study was the first to apply the chinmedomics strategy to discover the effective constituents of KLX in the treatment of DR, which fills the gap of unclear effective constituents of KLX. In the next step, the research of effective constituents can be used to optimize prescription preparation, improve the quality standard, and develop an innovative drug.

Protective effects of functional foods against Parkinson's disease: A narrative review on pharmacology, phytochemistry, and molecular mechanisms

In Persian Medicine (PM), PD (brain-based tremor) is a known CNS disorder with several therapeutic and preventive options. In their medical textbooks and pharmacopeias, Persian great scientists such as Rhazes (854-925 AD), Avicenna (980-1037 AD), and Jorjani (1042-1136 AD), have discussed pharmacological and nutritional strategies for the prevention, slowing progression, and treatment of PD. In the present study, we surveyed plant- and animal-based foods recommended by PM for the prevention and treatment of CNS-related tremors. In vivo and in-vitro pharmacological evidence supporting the beneficial effects of PM-recommended foods in prevention and alleviating PD, major active phytochemicals along with the relevant mechanisms of action were studied. Several PM plants possess potent antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and PD preventing properties. Garlic and allicin, cabbage and isothiocyanates, chickpea seed and its O-methylated isoflavones biochanin A and formononetin, cinnamon, and cinnamaldehyde, saffron and its crocin, crocetin, and safranal, black cumin and its thymoquinone, black pepper and piperine, pistachio and genistein and daidzein, and resveratrol are among the most effective dietary itemsagainst PD. They act through attenuating neurotoxin-induced memory loss and behavioral impairment, oxidative stress, and dopaminergic cell death. PM-recommended foods can help alleviate PD progression and also discovering and developing new neuroprotective anti-PD pharmaceuticals.

Neuroprotective effects of curcumin on the cerebellum in a rotenone‐induced Parkinson’s Disease Model

Aims

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Role of Phytoconstituents as PPAR Agonists: Implications for Neurodegenerative Disorders

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR-γ, PPAR-α, and PPAR-β/δ) are ligand-dependent nuclear receptors that play a critical role in the regulation of hundreds of genes through their activation. Their expression and targeted activation play an important role in the treatment of a variety of diseases, including neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, diabetes, and cancer. In recent years, several reviews have been published describing the therapeutic potential of PPAR agonists (natural or synthetic) in the disorders listed above; however, no comprehensive report defining the role of naturally derived phytoconstituents as PPAR agonists targeting neurodegenerative diseases has been published. This review will focus on the role of phytoconstituents as PPAR agonists and the relevant preclinical studies and mechanistic insights into their neuroprotective effects. Exemplary research includes flavonoids, fatty acids, cannabinoids, curcumin, genistein, capsaicin, and piperine, all of which have been shown to be PPAR agonists either directly or indirectly. Additionally, a few studies have demonstrated the use of clinical samples in in vitro investigations. The role of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a potential model for studying neurodegenerative diseases has also been highlighted.

Biochanin A protects SH-SY5Y cells against isoflurane-induced neurotoxicity by suppressing oxidative stress and apoptosis

Biochanin A (BCA) is a natural organic O-methylated isoflavone with a variety of pharmacological effects, and has been reported to have neuroprotective properties. Here, we explored whether BCA protects neurocytes against isoflurane-induced neurotoxicity and investigated the underlying mechanism. Cell viability was tested by cell counting kit-8 and lactate dehydrogenase release assays. Apoptosis was evaluated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and caspase-3/7 activity assays. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities and levels of glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured to assess oxidative stress. Expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) was determined by western blotting. Treatment with BCA significantly attenuated the reduction of cell viability induced by isoflurane in SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, BCA treatment reversed isoflurane-induced SOD and CAT activity reduction, GSH level decline and MDA level increase. Isoflurane-induced apoptosis was also attenuated by treatment with BCA. The increase in nuclear Nrf2, HO-1 and NQO1 expression induced by isoflurane was amplified by treatment with BCA. These inhibitory effects of BCA on isoflurane-induced oxidative stress, viability reduction and cell apoptosis were attenuated in Nrf2 knockdown SH-SY5Y cells. Our findings indicate that BCA protects SH-SY5Y cells against isoflurane-induced neurotoxicity via inducing the Nrf2/ARE pathway.

The Potential Effects of Phytoestrogens: The Role in Neuroprotection

Phytoestrogens are naturally occurring non-steroidal phenolic plant compounds. Their structure is similar to 17-β-estradiol, the main female sex hormone. This review offers a concise summary of the current literature on several potential health benefits of phytoestrogens, mainly their neuroprotective effect. Phytoestrogens lower the risk of menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis, as well as cardiovascular disease. They also reduce the risk of brain disease. The effects of phytoestrogens and their derivatives on cancer are mainly due to the inhibition of estrogen synthesis and metabolism, leading to antiangiogenic, antimetastatic, and epigenetic effects. The brain controls the secretion of estrogen (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonads axis). However, it has not been unequivocally established whether estrogen therapy has a neuroprotective effect on brain function. The neuroprotective effects of phytoestrogens seem to be related to both their antioxidant properties and interaction with the estrogen receptor. The possible effects of phytoestrogens on the thyroid cause some concern; nevertheless, generally, no serious side effects have been reported, and these compounds can be recommended as health-promoting food components or supplements.

Methanolic extracts of a selected Egyptian Vicia faba cultivar mitigate the oxidative/inflammatory burden and afford neuroprotection in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Vicia faba L. is a legume from the family Fabaceae. Ancient Egyptians consumed fava beans thousands of years ago and they are still one of the most popular foods in Egypt. The current study examined the anti-Parkinson effect of 80% methanolic extracts of seeds or sprouts of the fava 'Sakha 3 'cultivar which has been selected based on the total phenol content among three cultivars tested. In addition, the extracts were characterized by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection and quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (RP-HPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS). Three doses (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg) of 80% methanol extracts of seeds or sprouts of the Sakha 3 cultivar were evaluated in rotenone-Parkinsonian mice from behavioral, biochemical, and histopathological aspects. The extract of fava sprouts (600 mg/kg dose) showed the most beneficial effect. It improved motor activity, enhanced striatal dopamine level, and decreased the striatal malondialdehyde, as well as the expression of the inflammatory markers, compared with the rotenone control group and groups receiving lower therapeutic doses of the extracts or L-Dopa. In addition, these findings were supported by a histopathological investigation which indicated that mice treated with the 600-mg/kg dose of the sprout extract showed a low number of degenerated neurons. The application of RP-HPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS and mass/mass spectroscopy enabled the metabolic profiling of the sprouts and seeds of the 'Sakha 3' cultivar. It is obvious that germination increased the amounts of phenolic acids, saponins, and aromatic amino acids, together with a dramatic increase in flavonoids. In conclusion, the 80% methanolic extract of sprouts of the fava "Sakha 3" cultivar may be a promising candidate for treating Parkinsonism if appropriate safety data are available.