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Xue W, Zuo X, Zhao X, Wang X, Zhang X, Xia J, Cheng M, Yang H. Bioisosteric replacement strategy leads to novel DNA gyrase B inhibitors with improved potencies and properties. Bioorg Chem 2024; 147:107314. [PMID: 38581967 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
The identification of novel 4-hydroxy-2-quinolone-3-carboxamide antibacterials with improved properties is of great value for the control of antibiotic resistance. In this study, a series of N-heteroaryl-substituted 4-hydroxy-2-quinolone-3-carboxamides were developed using the bioisosteric replacement strategy. As a result of our research, we discovered the two most potent GyrB inhibitors (WBX7 and WBX18), with IC50 values of 0.816 µM and 0.137 µM, respectively. Additional antibacterial activity screening indicated that WBX18 possesses the best antibacterial activity against MRSA, VISA, and VRE strains, with MIC values rangingbetween0.5and 2 µg/mL, which was 2 to over 32 times more potent than that of vancomycin. In vitro safety and metabolic stability, as well as in vivo pharmacokinetics assessments revealed that WBX18 is non-toxic to HUVEC and HepG2, metabolically stable in plasma and liver microsomes (mouse), and displays favorable in vivo pharmacokinetic properties. Finally, docking studies combined with molecular dynamic simulation showed that WBX18 could stably fit in the active site cavity of GyrB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjie Xue
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Tongji Shanxi Hospital, Third Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030032, China; Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
| | - Xueping Zuo
- School of Materials and Environment, Shanxi Jinzhong Institute of Technology, Jinzhong 030600, China
| | - Xueqi Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xiaomin Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanxi Bethune Hospital, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Tongji Shanxi Hospital, Third Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030032, China; Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jie Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Department of New Drug Research and Development, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Maosheng Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Huali Yang
- Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery of Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
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2
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Chandra Jena B, Flaherty DP, O'Brien VP, Watts VJ. Biochemical pharmacology of adenylyl cyclases in cancer. Biochem Pharmacol 2024:116160. [PMID: 38522554 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Globally, despite extensive research and pharmacological advancement, cancer remains one of the most common causes of mortality. Understanding the signaling pathways involved in cancer progression is essential for the discovery of new drug targets. The adenylyl cyclase (AC) superfamily comprises glycoproteins that regulate intracellular signaling and convert ATP into cyclic AMP, an important second messenger. The present review highlights the involvement of ACs in cancer progression and suppression, broken down for each specific mammalian AC isoform. The precise mechanisms by which ACs contribute to cancer cell proliferation and invasion are not well understood and are variable among cancer types; however, AC overactivation, along with that of downstream regulators, presents a potential target for novel anticancer therapies. The expression patterns of ACs in numerous cancers are discussed. In addition, we highlight inhibitors of AC-related signaling that are currently under investigation, with a focus on possible anti-cancer strategies. Recent discoveries with small molecules regarding more direct modulation AC activity are also discussed in detail. A more comprehensive understanding of different components in AC-related signaling could potentially lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for personalized oncology and might enhance the efficacy of chemoimmunotherapy in the treatment of various cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bikash Chandra Jena
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
| | - Daniel P Flaherty
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
| | - Valerie P O'Brien
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA.
| | - Val J Watts
- Borch Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA.
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3
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Zhang H, Liu Y, Liu J, Chen J, Wang J, Hua H, Jiang Y. cAMP-PKA/EPAC signaling and cancer: the interplay in tumor microenvironment. J Hematol Oncol 2024; 17:5. [PMID: 38233872 PMCID: PMC10792844 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-024-01524-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a complex disease resulting from abnormal cell growth that is induced by a number of genetic and environmental factors. The tumor microenvironment (TME), which involves extracellular matrix, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF), tumor-infiltrating immune cells and angiogenesis, plays a critical role in tumor progression. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a second messenger that has pleiotropic effects on the TME. The downstream effectors of cAMP include cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), exchange protein activated by cAMP (EPAC) and ion channels. While cAMP can activate PKA or EPAC and promote cancer cell growth, it can also inhibit cell proliferation and survival in context- and cancer type-dependent manner. Tumor-associated stromal cells, such as CAF and immune cells, can release cytokines and growth factors that either stimulate or inhibit cAMP production within the TME. Recent studies have shown that targeting cAMP signaling in the TME has therapeutic benefits in cancer. Small-molecule agents that inhibit adenylate cyclase and PKA have been shown to inhibit tumor growth. In addition, cAMP-elevating agents, such as forskolin, can not only induce cancer cell death, but also directly inhibit cell proliferation in some cancer types. In this review, we summarize current understanding of cAMP signaling in cancer biology and immunology and discuss the basis for its context-dependent dual role in oncogenesis. Understanding the precise mechanisms by which cAMP and the TME interact in cancer will be critical for the development of effective therapies. Future studies aimed at investigating the cAMP-cancer axis and its regulation in the TME may provide new insights into the underlying mechanisms of tumorigenesis and lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongying Zhang
- Cancer Center, Laboratory of Oncogene, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yongliang Liu
- Cancer Center, Laboratory of Oncogene, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jieya Liu
- Cancer Center, Laboratory of Oncogene, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jinzhu Chen
- Cancer Center, Laboratory of Oncogene, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jiao Wang
- School of Basic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Hui Hua
- Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Yangfu Jiang
- Cancer Center, Laboratory of Oncogene, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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4
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Rasool N, Razzaq Z, Gul Khan S, Javaid S, Akhtar N, Mahmood S, Christensen JB, Ali Altaf A, Muhammad Muneeb Anjum S, Alqahtani F, AlAsmari AF, Imran I. A facile synthesis of 1,3,4-oxadiazole-based carbamothioate molecules: antiseizure potential, EEG evaluation and in-silico docking studies. ARAB J CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
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5
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Chen J, Ding Q, An L, Wang H. Ca2+-stimulated adenylyl cyclases as therapeutic targets for psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:949384. [PMID: 36188604 PMCID: PMC9523369 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.949384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As the main secondary messengers, cyclic AMP (cAMP) and Ca2+ trigger intracellular signal transduction cascade and, in turn, regulate many aspects of cellular function in developing and mature neurons. The group I adenylyl cyclase (ADCY, also known as AC) isoforms, including ADCY1, 3, and 8 (also known as AC1, AC3, and AC8), are stimulated by Ca2+ and thus functionally positioned to integrate cAMP and Ca2+ signaling. Emerging lines of evidence have suggested the association of the Ca2+-stimulated ADCYs with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and autism. In this review, we discuss the molecular and cellular features as well as the physiological functions of ADCY1, 3, and 8. We further discuss the recent therapeutic development to target the Ca2+-stimulated ADCYs for potential treatments of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Dwyer TS, O’Brien JB, Ptak CP, LaVigne JE, Flaherty DP, Watts VJ, Roman DL. Protein-protein interaction-based high throughput screening for adenylyl cyclase 1 inhibitors: Design, implementation, and discovery of a novel chemotype. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:977742. [PMID: 36147328 PMCID: PMC9486168 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.977742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic and preclinical studies have implicated adenylyl cyclase 1 (AC1) as a potential target for the treatment of chronic inflammatory pain. AC1 activity is increased following inflammatory pain stimuli and AC1 knockout mice show a marked reduction in responses to inflammatory pain. Previous drug discovery efforts have centered around the inhibition of AC1 activity in cell-based assays. In the present study, we used an in vitro approach focused on inhibition of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) between Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM) and AC1, an interaction that is required for activation of AC1. We developed a novel fluorescence polarization (FP) assay focused on the PPI between an AC1 peptide and CaM and used this assay to screen over 23,000 compounds for inhibitors of the AC1-CaM PPI. Next, we used a cellular NanoBiT assay to validate 21 FP hits for inhibition of the AC1-CaM PPI in a cellular context with full-length proteins. Based on efficacy, potency, and selectivity for AC1, hits 12, 13, 15, 18, 20, and 21 were prioritized. We then tested these compounds for inhibition of AC1 activity in cyclic AMP (cAMP) accumulation assays, using HEK293 cells stably expressing AC1. Hit 15 contained a dithiophene scaffold and was of particular interest because it shared structural similarities with our recently reported benzamide series of AC1 inhibitors. We next tested a small set of 13 compounds containing the dithiophene scaffold for structure-activity relationship studies. Although many compounds were non-selective, we observed trends for tuning AC1/AC8 selectivity based on heterocycle type and substituents. Having an ethyl on the central thiophene caused the scaffold to be more selective for AC8. Cyclization of the alkyl substituent fused to the thiophene significantly reduced activity and also shifted selectivity toward AC8. Notably, combining the fused cyclohexane-thiophene ring system with a morpholine heterocycle significantly increased potency at both AC1 and AC8. Through designing a novel FP screen and NanoBiT assay, and evaluating hits in cAMP accumulation assays, we have discovered a novel, potent, dithiophene scaffold for inhibition of the AC1- and AC8-CaM PPI. We also report the most potent fully efficacious inhibitor of AC8 activity known to-date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany S. Dwyer
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Joseph B. O’Brien
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Iowa College of Pharmacy, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Christopher P. Ptak
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Facility, The University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Justin E. LaVigne
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Daniel P. Flaherty
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Val J. Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- *Correspondence: David L. Roman, ; Val J. Watts,
| | - David L. Roman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Iowa College of Pharmacy, Iowa City, IA, United States
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, Iowa City, IA, United States
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa Hospitals & Clinics, Iowa City, IA, United States
- *Correspondence: David L. Roman, ; Val J. Watts,
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7
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Giacoletti G, Price T, Hoelz LVB, Shremo Msdi A, Cossin S, Vazquez-Falto K, Amorim Fernandes TV, Santos de Pontes V, Wang H, Boechat N, Nornoo A, Brust TF. A Selective Adenylyl Cyclase 1 Inhibitor Relieves Pain Without Causing Tolerance. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:935588. [PMID: 35899113 PMCID: PMC9310748 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.935588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the ten different adenylyl cyclase isoforms, studies with knockout animals indicate that inhibition of AC1 can relieve pain and reduce behaviors linked to opioid dependence. We previously identified ST034307 as a selective inhibitor of AC1. The development of an AC1-selective inhibitor now provides the opportunity to further study the therapeutic potential of inhibiting this protein in pre-clinical animal models of pain and related adverse reactions. In the present study we have shown that ST034307 relives pain in mouse models of formalin-induced inflammatory pain, acid-induced visceral pain, and acid-depressed nesting. In addition, ST034307 did not cause analgesic tolerance after chronic dosing. We were unable to detect ST034307 in mouse brain following subcutaneous injections but showed a significant reduction in cAMP concentration in dorsal root ganglia of the animals. Considering the unprecedented selectivity of ST034307, we also report the predicted molecular interaction between ST034307 and AC1. Our results indicate that AC1 inhibitors represent a promising new class of analgesic agents that treat pain and do not result in tolerance or cause disruption of normal behavior in mice. In addition, we outline a unique binding site for ST034307 at the interface of the enzyme’s catalytic domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianna Giacoletti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
| | - Tatum Price
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
| | - Lucas V. B. Hoelz
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos—FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Abdulwhab Shremo Msdi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
| | - Samantha Cossin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
| | - Katerina Vazquez-Falto
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
| | - Tácio V. Amorim Fernandes
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos—FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia—INMETRO, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Santos de Pontes
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos—FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Hongbing Wang
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Nubia Boechat
- Laboratório de Síntese de Fármacos—LASFAR, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos—FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Adwoa Nornoo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
| | - Tarsis F. Brust
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Tarsis F. Brust,
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8
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Naclerio GA, Abutaleb NS, Onyedibe KI, Karanja C, Eldesouky HE, Liang HW, Dieterly A, Aryal UK, Lyle T, Seleem MN, Sintim HO. Mechanistic Studies and In Vivo Efficacy of an Oxadiazole-Containing Antibiotic. J Med Chem 2022; 65:6612-6630. [PMID: 35482444 PMCID: PMC9124606 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c02034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections are still difficult to treat, despite the availability of many FDA-approved antibiotics. Thus, new compound scaffolds are still needed to treat MRSA. The oxadiazole-containing compound, HSGN-94, has been shown to reduce lipoteichoic acid (LTA) in S. aureus, but the mechanism that accounts for LTA biosynthesis inhibition remains uncharacterized. Herein, we report the elucidation of the mechanism by which HSGN-94 inhibits LTA biosynthesis via utilization of global proteomics, activity-based protein profiling, and lipid analysis via multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Our data suggest that HSGN-94 inhibits LTA biosynthesis via direct binding to PgcA and downregulation of PgsA. We further show that HSGN-94 reduces the MRSA load in skin infection (mouse) and decreases pro-inflammatory cytokines in MRSA-infected wounds. Collectively, HSGN-94 merits further consideration as a potential drug for staphylococcal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Naclerio
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Nader S Abutaleb
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Kenneth I Onyedibe
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Caroline Karanja
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hassan E Eldesouky
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hsin-Wen Liang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Alexandra Dieterly
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Uma K Aryal
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Proteomics Facility, Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Tiffany Lyle
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Center for Comparative Translational Research, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Mohamed N Seleem
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Center for Emerging, Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Herman O Sintim
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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9
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Scott JA, Soto-Velasquez M, Hayes MP, LaVigne JE, Miller HR, Kaur J, Ejendal KFK, Watts VJ, Flaherty DP. Optimization of a Pyrimidinone Series for Selective Inhibition of Ca 2+/Calmodulin-Stimulated Adenylyl Cyclase 1 Activity for the Treatment of Chronic Pain. J Med Chem 2022; 65:4667-4686. [PMID: 35271288 PMCID: PMC9390083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclase type 1 (AC1) is involved in signaling for chronic pain sensitization in the central nervous system and is an emerging target for the treatment of chronic pain. AC1 and a closely related isoform AC8 are also implicated to have roles in learning and memory signaling processes. Our team has carried out cellular screening for inhibitors of AC1 yielding a pyrazolyl-pyrimidinone scaffold with low micromolar potency against AC1 and selectivity versus AC8. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies led to analogues with cellular IC50 values as low as 0.25 μM, selectivity versus AC8 and other AC isoforms as well as other common neurological targets. A representative analogue displayed modest antiallodynic effects in a mouse model of inflammatory pain. This series represents the most potent and selective inhibitors of Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated AC1 activity to date with improved drug-like physicochemical properties making them potential lead compounds for the treatment of inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Scott
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Monica Soto-Velasquez
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Michael P Hayes
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Justin E LaVigne
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Heath R Miller
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jatinder Kaur
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Karin F K Ejendal
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, 207 South Martin Jischke Dr. West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Daniel P Flaherty
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, 207 South Martin Jischke Dr. West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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10
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Świątek P, Glomb T, Dobosz A, Gębarowski T, Wojtkowiak K, Jezierska A, Panek JJ, Świątek M, Strzelecka M. Biological Evaluation and Molecular Docking Studies of Novel 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Derivatives of 4,6-Dimethyl-2-sulfanylpyridine-3-carboxamide. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23010549. [PMID: 35008977 PMCID: PMC8745710 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To date, chronic inflammation is involved in most main human pathologies such as cancer, and autoimmune, cardiovascular or neurodegenerative disorders. Studies suggest that different prostanoids, especially prostaglandin E2, and their own synthase (cyclooxygenase enzyme-COX) can promote tumor growth by activating signaling pathways which control cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used, alongside corticosteroids, to treat inflammatory symptoms particularly in all chronic diseases. However, their toxicity from COX inhibition and the suppression of physiologically important prostaglandins limits their use. Therefore, in continuation of our efforts in the development of potent, safe, non-toxic chemopreventive compounds, we report herein the design, synthesis, biological evaluation of new series of Schiff base-type hybrid compounds containing differently substituted N-acyl hydrazone moieties, 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring, and 4,6-dimethylpyridine core. The anti-COX-1/COX-2, antioxidant and anticancer activities were studied. Schiff base 13, containing 2-bromobenzylidene residue inhibited the activity of both isoenzymes, COX-1 and COX-2 at a lower concentration than standard drugs, and its COX-2/COX-1 selectivity ratio was similar to meloxicam. Furthermore, the results of cytotoxicity assay indicated that all of the tested compounds exhibited potent anti-cancer activity against A549, MCF-7, LoVo, and LoVo/Dx cell lines, compared with piroxicam and meloxicam. Moreover, our experimental study was supported by density functional theory (DFT) and molecular docking to describe the binding mode of new structures to cyclooxygenase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Świątek
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, Borowska 211, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: (P.Ś.); (T.G.); Tel.: +48-717840391 (P.Ś. & T.G.)
| | - Teresa Glomb
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, Borowska 211, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: (P.Ś.); (T.G.); Tel.: +48-717840391 (P.Ś. & T.G.)
| | - Agnieszka Dobosz
- Department of Medical Science Foundation, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, Borowska 211, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | - Tomasz Gębarowski
- Department of Biostructure and Animal Physiology, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Kożuchowska 1/3, 51-631 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | - Kamil Wojtkowiak
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, F. Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland; (K.W.); (A.J.); (J.J.P.)
| | - Aneta Jezierska
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, F. Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland; (K.W.); (A.J.); (J.J.P.)
| | - Jarosław J. Panek
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, F. Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland; (K.W.); (A.J.); (J.J.P.)
| | - Małgorzata Świątek
- Hospital Pharmacy, University Clinical Hospital, Borowska 213, 50-556 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Małgorzata Strzelecka
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, Borowska 211, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland;
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11
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Zhang WW, Cao H, Li Y, Fu XJ, Zhang YQ. Peripheral ablation of type Ⅲ adenylyl cyclase induces hyperalgesia and eliminates KOR-mediated analgesia in mice. JCI Insight 2021; 7:153191. [PMID: 34914639 PMCID: PMC8855833 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.153191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ca2+/calmodulin-stimulated group Ⅰ adenylyl cyclase (AC) isoforms AC1 and AC8 have been involved in nociceptive processing and morphine responses. However, whether AC3, another member of group I ACs, is involved in nociceptive transmission and regulates opioid receptor signaling remain elusive. Here we report that conditional knockout of AC3 (AC3CKO) in L3 and L4 DRGs robustly facilitates the mouse nociceptive responses, decreases voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel currents and increases neuronal excitability. Also, AC3CKO eliminates the analgesic effect of κ opioid receptor (KOR) agonist and its inhibition on Kv channel by classical Gαi/o signaling or nonclassical direct interaction of KOR and AC3 proteins. Interestingly, significantly upregulated AC1 level and cAMP concentration are detected in AC3 deficient DRGs. Inhibition of AC1 completely reversed cAMP upregulation, neuronal excitability enhancement and nociceptive behavioral hypersensitivity in AC3CKO mice. Our findings suggest a crucial role of peripheral AC3 in nociceptive modulation and KOR opioid analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Wen Zhang
- Department of Translational Neurosciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Cao
- Department of Translational Neurosciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of Intelligence and Information Engineering, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Xian-Jun Fu
- Qingdao Academy of Chinese Medical Science, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Qingdao, China
| | - Yu-Qiu Zhang
- Department of Translational Neurosciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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12
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O'Brien JB, Roman DL. Novel treatments for chronic pain: moving beyond opioids. Transl Res 2021; 234:1-19. [PMID: 33727192 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2021.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It is essential that safe and effective treatment options be available to patients suffering from chronic pain. The emergence of an opioid epidemic has shaped public opinions and created stigmas surrounding the use of opioids for the management of pain. This reality, coupled with high risk of adverse effects from chronic opioid use, has led chronic pain patients and their healthcare providers to utilize nonopioid treatment approaches. In this review, we will explore a number of cellular reorganizations that are associated with the development and progression of chronic pain. We will also discuss the safety and efficacy of opioid and nonopioid treatment options for chronic pain. Finally, we will review the evidence for adenylyl cyclase type 1 (AC1) as a novel target for the treatment of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B O'Brien
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - David L Roman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Iowa Neuroscience Institute, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
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13
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Glomb T, Świątek P. Antimicrobial Activity of 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Derivatives. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6979. [PMID: 34209520 PMCID: PMC8268636 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The worldwide development of antimicrobial resistance forces scientists to search for new compounds to which microbes would be sensitive. Many new structures contain the 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring, which have shown various antimicrobial activity, e.g., antibacterial, antitubercular, antifungal, antiprotozoal and antiviral. In many publications, the activity of new compounds exceeds the activity of already known antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents, so their potential as new drugs is very promising. The review of active antimicrobial 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives is based on the literature from 2015 to 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Piotr Świątek
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Wroclaw Medical University, Borowska 211, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland;
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14
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trans-Translation inhibitors bind to a novel site on the ribosome and clear Neisseria gonorrhoeae in vivo. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1799. [PMID: 33741965 PMCID: PMC7979765 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22012-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial ribosome rescue pathways that remove ribosomes stalled on mRNAs during translation have been proposed as novel antibiotic targets because they are essential in bacteria and are not conserved in humans. We previously reported the discovery of a family of acylaminooxadiazoles that selectively inhibit trans-translation, the main ribosome rescue pathway in bacteria. Here, we report optimization of the pharmacokinetic and antibiotic properties of the acylaminooxadiazoles, producing MBX-4132, which clears multiple-drug resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection in mice after a single oral dose. Single particle cryogenic-EM studies of non-stop ribosomes show that acylaminooxadiazoles bind to a unique site near the peptidyl-transfer center and significantly alter the conformation of ribosomal protein bL27, suggesting a novel mechanism for specific inhibition of trans-translation by these molecules. These results show that trans-translation is a viable therapeutic target and reveal a new conformation within the bacterial ribosome that may be critical for ribosome rescue pathways.
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15
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Naclerio GA, Abutaleb NS, Alhashimi M, Seleem MN, Sintim HO. N-(1,3,4-Oxadiazol-2-yl)Benzamides as Antibacterial Agents against Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2427. [PMID: 33671065 PMCID: PMC7957578 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recognizes Neisseria gonorrhoeae as an urgent-threat Gram-negative bacterial pathogen. Additionally, resistance to frontline treatment (dual therapy with azithromycin and ceftriaxone) has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant N. gonorrhoeae, which has caused a global health crisis. The drug pipeline for N. gonorrhoeae has been severely lacking as new antibacterial agents have not been approved by the FDA in the last twenty years. Thus, there is a need for new chemical entities active against drug-resistant N. gonorrhoeae. Trifluoromethylsulfonyl (SO2CF3), trifluoromethylthio (SCF3), and pentafluorosulfanyl (SF5) containing N-(1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamides are novel compounds with potent activities against Gram-positive bacterial pathogens. Here, we report the discovery of new N-(1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamides (HSGN-237 and -238) with highly potent activity against N. gonorrhoeae. Additionally, these new compounds were shown to have activity against clinically important Gram-positive bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and Listeria monocytogenes (minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) as low as 0.25 µg/mL). Both compounds were highly tolerable to human cell lines. Moreover, HSGN-238 showed an outstanding ability to permeate across the gastrointestinal tract, indicating it would have a high systemic absorption if used as an anti-gonococcal therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Naclerio
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Nader S Abutaleb
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Marwa Alhashimi
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Mohamed N Seleem
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Herman O Sintim
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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16
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New 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Derivatives of Pyridothiazine-1,1-Dioxide with Anti-Inflammatory Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239122. [PMID: 33266208 PMCID: PMC7729791 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have confirmed the coexistence of oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. Long-term inflammation and oxidative stress may significantly affect the initiation of the neoplastic transformation process. Here, we describe the synthesis of a new series of Mannich base-type hybrid compounds containing an arylpiperazine residue, 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring, and pyridothiazine-1,1-dioxide core. The synthesis was carried out with the hope that the hybridization of different pharmacophoric molecules would result in a synergistic effect on their anti-inflammatory activity, especially the ability to inhibit cyclooxygenase. The obtained compounds were investigated in terms of their potencies to inhibit cyclooxygenase COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes with the use of the colorimetric inhibitor screening assay. Their antioxidant and cytotoxic effect on normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) was also studied. Strong COX-2 inhibitory activity was observed after the use of TG6 and, especially, TG4. The TG11 compound, as well as reference meloxicam, turned out to be a preferential COX-2 inhibitor. TG12 was, in turn, a non-selective COX inhibitor. A molecular docking study was performed to understand the binding interaction of compounds at the active site of cyclooxygenases.
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17
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Naclerio GA, Abutaleb NS, Li D, Seleem MN, Sintim HO. Ultrapotent Inhibitor of Clostridioides difficile Growth, Which Suppresses Recurrence In Vivo. J Med Chem 2020; 63:11934-11944. [PMID: 32960605 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile is the leading cause of healthcare-associated infection in the U.S. and considered an urgent threat by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Only two antibiotics, vancomycin and fidaxomicin, are FDA-approved for the treatment of C. difficile infection (CDI), but these therapies still suffer from high treatment failure and recurrence. Therefore, new chemical entities to treat CDI are needed. Trifluoromethylthio-containing N-(1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamides displayed very potent activities [sub-μg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values] against Gram-positive bacteria. Here, we report remarkable antibacterial activity enhancement via halogen substitutions, which afforded new anti-C. difficile agents with ultrapotent activities [MICs as low as 0.003 μg/mL (0.007 μM)] that surpassed the activity of vancomycin against C. difficile clinical isolates. The most promising compound in the series, HSGN-218, is nontoxic to mammalian colon cells and is gut-restrictive. In addition, HSGN-218 protected mice from CDI recurrence. Not only does this work provide a potential clinical lead for the development of C. difficile therapeutics but also highlights dramatic drug potency enhancement via halogen substitution.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Naclerio
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Nader S Abutaleb
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Daoyi Li
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Mohamed N Seleem
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States.,Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States.,Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Herman O Sintim
- Chemistry Department, Institute for Drug Discovery, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States.,Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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18
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Price T, Brust TF. Adenylyl cyclase 7 and neuropsychiatric disorders: A new target for depression? Pharmacol Res 2019; 143:106-112. [PMID: 30904753 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) are enzymes that catalyze the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Humans express nine isoforms of membranous ACs and a soluble AC. Studies with genetic knockout or overexpression rodent models have indicated that AC isoforms may be targeted to achieve specific therapeutic outcomes. AC1, for instance, has been suggested and pursued as a target for relieving pain. Notably, previous studies examining genetically modified mice as well as human genetic polymorphisms have suggested a link between AC7 activity and depressive disorders. In the present review we present an overview on AC function and discuss the most recent developments to target AC isoforms for drug therapies. We next focus on discussing the available literature on the molecular and animal pharmacology of AC7 highlighting the available studies on the role of AC7 in depressive disorders. In addition, we discuss other possible physiological functions of AC7 relating to ethanol effects and the immune system and conclude with considerations about pharmacological modulation of AC7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatum Price
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL 33416, United States
| | - Tarsis F Brust
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lloyd L. Gregory School of Pharmacy, Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, FL 33416, United States..
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