Discovery, synthesis and anti-atherosclerotic activities of a novel selective sphingomyelin synthase 2 inhibitor

Lipids associated with atherosclerotic plaque instability revealed by mass spectrometry imaging of human carotid arteries

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Lipids constitute one of the main components of atherosclerosis lesions and are the mediators of many mechanisms involved in plaque progression and stability. Here we tested the hypothesis that lipids known to be involved in plaque development exhibited associations with plaque vulnerability. We used spatial lipidomics to overcome plaque heterogeneity and to compare lipids from specific regions of symptomatic and asymptomatic human carotid atherosclerotic plaques.

METHODS

Carotid atherosclerotic plaques were collected from symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Plaque lipids were analyzed with the spatial lipidomics technique matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging, and histology and immunofluorescence were used to segment the plaques into histomolecularly distinct regions.

RESULTS

Macrophage-rich regions from symptomatic lesions were found to be enriched in phosphatidylcholines (synthesized to counteract excess free cholesterol), while the same region from asymptomatic plaques were enriched in polyunsaturated cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, characteristic of functional lipid droplets. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) of the fibrous cap of asymptomatic plaques were enriched in lysophosphatidylcholines and cholesteryl esters, know to promote VSMC proliferation and migration, crucial for the buildup of the fibrous cap stabilizing the plaque.

CONCLUSIONS

The investigation of the region-specific lipid composition of symptomatic and asymptomatic human atherosclerotic plaques revealed specific lipid markers of plaque outcome, which could be linked to known biological characteristics of stable plaques.

LARP6 suppresses colorectal cancer progression through ZNF267/SGMS2-mediated imbalance of sphingomyelin synthesis

BACKGROUND

With increasing incidence and mortality, colorectal cancer (CRC) seriously endangers human health. LARP6, a member of La-related protein (LARP) family, is a RNA binding protein and probably associates with CRC progression, but its specific roles and mechanisms in CRC still remain unknown.

METHOD

Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), western blot, and immunohistochemistry were employed to examine LARP6 expression in CRC tissues. Using the stable LARP6 overexpression or interference CRC cell lines, the effect of LARP6 on CRC progression were evaluated. High-throughput RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (RIP-seq) and a series of relevant experiments were conducted to explain how LARP6 functions. SPSS software was used for statistical analysis.

RESULT

In this study, we found that LARP6 expression is downregulated in CRC and correlates with patients' overall survival and relapse-free survival. Furthermore, altered LARP6 expression influences CRC cells invasion and metastasis. Mechanically, we discovered that LARP6 bind ZNF267 mRNA and regulated its stability and translation. LARP6 inhibited expression of SGMS2, a downstream target of ZNF267, resulting in ceramide and sphingomyelin imbalance in CRC cells. Interestingly, LARP6 also enhances autophagy activity of CRC cells, and the effect was at least partially determined by the inhibition of SGMS2-mediated sphingomyelin synthesis.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed how LARP6/ZNF267/SGMS2 axis influence CRC progression, which contributes to further understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying CRC development.

Spatial metabolomics identifies lipid profiles of human carotid atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Carotid atherosclerosis is an important cause of ischemic stroke. Lipids play a key role in the progression of atherosclerosis. To date, the spatial lipid profile of carotid atherosclerotic plaques related to histology has not been systematically investigated.

METHODS

Carotid atherosclerosis samples from 12 patients were obtained and classified into four classical pathological stages (preatheroma, atheroma, fibroatheroma and complicated lesion) by histological staining. Desorption electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) was used to investigate the lipid profile of carotid atherosclerosis, and correlated it with histological information. Bioinformatics technology was used to process MSI data among different pathological stages of atherosclerosis lesions.

RESULTS

A total of 55 lipids (26 throughout cross-section regions [TCSRs], 13 in lipid-rich regions [LRRs], and 16 in collagen-rich regions [CRRs]) were initially identified in carotid plaque from one patient. Subsequently, 32 of 55 lipids (12 in TCSRs, eight in LRRs, and 12 in CRRs) were further screened in 11 patients. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that multiple metabolic pathways, such as fat digestion and absorption, cholesterol metabolism, lipid and atherosclerosis, were enriched in TCSRs; sphingolipid signaling pathway, necroptosis pathway were enriched in LRRs; and glycerophospholipid metabolism, ether lipid metabolism pathway were mainly enriched in CRRs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study comprehensively showed the spatial lipid metabolism footprint in human carotid atherosclerotic plaques. The lipid profiles and related metabolism pathways in three regions of plaque with disease progression were different markedly, suggesting that the different metabolic mechanisms in these regions of carotid plaque may be critical in atherosclerosis progression.

Sphingomyelin synthase 2 is a positive regulator of the CSF1R-STAT3 pathway in pancreatic cancer-associated macrophage

Background: Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are one of the most abundant immune cells in the pancreatic cancer stroma and are related to the poor prognosis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) patients. Therefore, targeting tumor-associated macrophages is a possible strategy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Purpose: We would like to investigate the role of sphingomyelin synthase 2 (SMS2) and the effect of the synthase 2 selective inhibitor YE2 in TAMs and the pancreatic tumor microenvironment. In addition, we also would like to investigate the mechanism by which YE2 attenuates macrophage M2 polarization.

Methods: YE2 was utilized to treat macrophages (in vitro) and mice (in vivo). Western blotting and real-time PCR were used to detect the protein levels and mRNA levels of macrophage M2 polarization markers and their downstream signaling pathways. Sphingomyelin synthase 2 gene knockout (KO) mice and their controls were used to establish a PANC-02 orthotopic pancreatic cancer model, and immune cell infiltration in the tumor tissue was analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC).

Results: We found that sphingomyelin synthase 2 mRNA expression is positively correlated with tumor-associated macrophages, the immunosuppressive microenvironment, and poor prognosis in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma patients. Sphingomyelin synthase 2 deficiency was confirmed to have an inhibitory effect on the growth of orthotopic PANC-02 tumors in vivo. The deficiency not only reduced the infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages but also regulated other immune components in the tumor microenvironment. In tissue culture, YE2 inhibited M2 polarization in both bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) and THP-1 macrophages and eliminated the protumor effect of M2 macrophages. In the mouse model, YE2 treatment reduced the infiltration of TAMs and regulated other immune components in the tumor microenvironment, slowing the progression of PANC-02 tumors. In terms of mechanism, we found that the inhibition of sphingomyelin synthase 2 could downregulate the expression of IL4Rα and CSF1R, thereby attenuating M2 polarization.

Conclusion: The sphingomyelin synthase 2 inhibitor YE2 or sphingomyelin synthase 2 deficiency can prevent macrophage M2 polarization in pancreatic cancer, and sphingomyelin synthase 2 could be a new potential target for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Photocatalytic Oxidative Bromination of 2,6-Dichlorotoluene to 2,6-Dichlorobenzyl Bromide in a Microchannel Reactor

Photocatalytic oxidative benzylic bromination with hydrobromic acid (HBr) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is a green process for the synthesis of benzyl bromides, but suffers from the risk of explosion when performing it in a batch reactor. This disadvantage could be overcome by running the reaction in a microchannel reactor. In this work, a green and safe process for the synthesis of 2,6-dichlorobenzyl bromide (DCBB) was developed by conducting selective benzylic bromination of 2,6-dichlorotoluene (DCT) with H₂O₂ as an oxidant and HBr as a bromine source in a microchannel reactor under light irradiation. The reaction parameters were optimized, and the conversion of DCT reached up to 98.1% with a DCBB yield of 91.4% under the optimal reaction conditions.

Liver sphingomyelin synthase 1 deficiency causes steatosis, steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and tumorigenesis: An effect of glucosylceramide accumulation

Glucosylceramide (GluCer) was accumulated in sphingomyelin synthase 1 (SMS1) but not SMS2 deficient mouse tissues. In current study, we studied GluCer accumulation-mediated metabolic consequences. Livers from liver-specific Sms1/global Sms2 double-knockout (dKO) exhibited severe steatosis under a high-fat diet. Moreover, chow diet-fed ≥6-month-old dKO mice had liver impairment, inflammation, and fibrosis, compared with wild type and Sms2 KO mice. RNA sequencing showed 3- to 12-fold increases in various genes which are involved in lipogenesis, inflammation, and fibrosis. Further, we found that direct GluCer treatment (in vitro and in vivo) promoted hepatocyte to secrete more activated TGFβ1, which stimulated more collagen 1α1 production in hepatic stellate cells. Additionally, GluCer promoted more β-catenin translocation into the nucleus, thus promoting tumorigenesis. Importantly, human NASH patients had higher liver GluCer synthase and higher plasma GluCer. These findings implicated that GluCer accumulation is one of triggers promoting the development of NAFLD into NASH, then, fibrosis, and tumorigenesis.

New Molecular Targets for Antidepressant Drugs

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common and severe mental disorder that is usually recurrent and has a high risk of suicide. This disorder manifests not only with psychological symptoms but also multiple changes throughout the body, including increased risks of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Peripheral markers of oxidative stress and inflammation are elevated. MDD is therefore best described as a multisystem whole-body disease. Pharmacological treatment with antidepressants usually requires several weeks before the desired effects manifest. Previous theories of depression, such as the monoamine or neurogenesis hypotheses, do not explain these characteristics well. In recent years, new mechanisms of action have been discovered for long-standing antidepressants that also shed new light on depression, including the sphingolipid system and the receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

Serum cardiovascular-related metabolites disturbance exposed to different heavy metal exposure scenarios

Health effects induced by heavy metal components of particulate matter need further research. A total of 32 healthy volunteers were recruited to walk for 4 h in two different exposure scenarios in Wuhan from May 1 to Jun 30, 2019. Metabolomics technology was used to identify serum cardiovascular-related metabolites disturbance, and the health risk assessment model was employed to assess the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks associated with airborne heavy metals. The results showed that the average mass concentrations of Co, Ni, Cd, Cu, Ag and Ba in PM10 from May 1 to Jun 30, 2019 were 0.22, 0.49, 11.53, 2.23, 34.47 and 4.19 ng/m3, respectively, and were 0.86, 128.47, 291.85, 291.94, 98.55 and 422.62 ng/m3 in PM2.5, respectively. Healthy young adults briefly exposed to heavy metals were associated with serum cardiovascular-related metabolites disturbance, including increased SM(d18:1/17:0) and Sphingomyelin, and decreased GlcCer(d16:1/18:0) and Galabiosylceramide, simultaneously accompanied by activation of the sphingolipid metabolism pathway. Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks of airborne heavy metals via the inhalation route were observed, Ni and Cd most influenced to potential health risks. Findings indicated exposure to increment of heavy metals may increase health risks by causing cardiovascular-related metabolites disturbance via activating the sphingolipid metabolism pathway.

Mass Spectrometry Imaging as a Tool to Investigate Region Specific Lipid Alterations in Symptomatic Human Carotid Atherosclerotic Plaques

Atherosclerosis is characterized by fatty plaques in large and medium sized arteries. Their rupture can causes thrombi, occlusions of downstream vessels and adverse clinical events. The investigation of atherosclerotic plaques is made difficult by their highly heterogeneous nature. Here we propose a spatially resolved approach based on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry imaging to investigate lipids in specific regions of atherosclerotic plaques. The method was applied to a small dataset including symptomatic and asymptomatic human carotid atherosclerosis plaques. Tissue sections of symptomatic and asymptomatic human carotid atherosclerotic plaques were analyzed by MALDI mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI MSI) of lipids, and adjacent sections analyzed by histology and immunofluorescence. These multimodal datasets were used to compare the lipid profiles of specific histopathological regions within the plaque. The lipid profiles of macrophage-rich regions and intimal vascular smooth muscle cells exhibited the largest changes associated with plaque outcome. Macrophage-rich regions from symptomatic lesions were found to be enriched in sphingomyelins, and intimal vascular smooth muscle cells of symptomatic plaques were enriched in cholesterol and cholesteryl esters. The proposed method enabled the MALDI MSI analysis of specific regions of the atherosclerotic lesion, confirming MALDI MSI as a promising tool for the investigation of histologically heterogeneous atherosclerotic plaques.

Sphingomyelin synthase-related protein generates diacylglycerol via the hydrolysis of glycerophospholipids in the absence of ceramide

Diacylglycerol (DG) is a well-established lipid second messenger. Sphingomyelin synthase (SMS)-related protein (SMSr) produces DG and ceramide phosphoethanolamine (CPE) by the transfer of phosphoethanolamine from phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) to ceramide. We previously reported that human SMSr overexpressed in COS-7 cells significantly increased DG levels, particularly saturated and/or monounsaturated fatty acid-containing DG molecular species, and provided DG to DG kinase (DGK) δ, which regulates various pathophysiological events, including epidermal growth factor-dependent cell proliferation, type 2 diabetes, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. However, mammalian SMSr puzzlingly produces only trace amounts of CPE/DG. To clarify this discrepancy, we highly purified SMSr and examined its activities other than CPE synthase. Intriguingly, purified SMSr showed a DG-generating activity via hydrolysis of PE, phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylinositol (PI), and phosphatidylcholine (PC) in the absence of ceramide. DG generation through the PA phosphatase (PAP) activity of SMSr was approximately 300-fold higher than that with PE and ceramide. SMSr hydrolyzed PI ten times stronger than PI(4,5)bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂). The PAP and PC-phospholipase C (PLC) activities of SMSr were inhibited by propranolol, a PAP inhibitor, and by D609, an SMS/PC-PLC inhibitor. Moreover, SMSr showed substrate selectivity for saturated and/or monounsaturated fatty acid-containing PA molecular species, but not arachidonic-acid-containing PA, which is exclusively generated in the PI(4,5)P₂ cycle. We confirmed that SMSr expressed in COS-7 cells showed PAP and PI-PLC activities. Taken together, our study indicated that SMSr possesses previously unrecognized enzyme activities, PAP and PI/PE/PC-PLC, and constitutes a novel DG/PA signaling pathway together with DGKδ, which is independent of the PI(4,5)P₂ cycle.

Ceramide/Sphingomyelin Rheostat Regulated by Sphingomyelin Synthases and Chronic Diseases in Murine Models

Ceramide and sphingomyelin (SM) are major components of the double membrane-bound sphingolipids. Ceramide is an essential bioactive lipid involved in numerous cell processes including apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy-dependent cell death. Inversely, SM regulates opposite cellular processes such as proliferation and migration by changing receptor-mediated signal transduction in the lipid microdomain. SM is generated through a transfer of phosphocholine from phosphatidylcholine to ceramide by SM synthases (SMSs). Research during the past several decades has revealed that the ceramide/SM balance in cellular membranes regulated by SMSs is important to decide the cell fate, survival, and proliferation. In addition, recent experimental studies utilizing SMS knockout mice and murine disease models provide evidence that SMS-regulated ceramide/SM balance is involved in human diseases. Here, we review the basic structural and functional characteristics of SMSs and focus on their cellular functions through the regulation of ceramide/SM balance in membrane microdomains. In addition, we present the pathological or physiological implications of SMSs by analyzing their role in SMS-knockout mice and human disease models. This review finally presents evidence indicating that the regulation of ceramide/SM balance through SMS could be a therapeutic target for human disorders.