Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) in Finland: technological and physical prospects after 20 years of experiences

Efficient optimization of an accelerator neutron source for neutron capture therapy using genetic algorithms

BACKGROUND

In recent years, genetic algorithms have been applied in the field of nuclear technology design, producing superior optimization results compared to traditional methods. They can be employed in the design and optimization of beam shaping assemblies (BSA) BSA to obtain the desired neutron beams. But it should be noted that the direct combination of Monte Carlo methods with genetic algorithms requires a significant amount of computational resources and time.

PURPOSE

Design and optimize BSA more efficiently to achieve neutron beams that meet specified recommendations.

METHODS

We propose an approach of NSGA II with crucial variables which are identified by multivariate statistical techniques. This approach significantly reduces the problem sizes, thus reducing the time required for optimization. We illustrate this methodology using the example of BSA design for AB-BNCT.

RESULTS

The computational efficiency has tripled with crucial variables. By using NSGA II, we obtained optimized models conforming to both the new and old version IAEA BNCT guidelines through a single optimization process and subjected them to phantom analysis. The results demonstrate that models obtained through this method can meet the IAEA recommendations with deep advantage depth (AD) and high absorbed ratio (AR).

CONCLUSION

The genetic algorithm with crucial variables displays tremendous potential in addressing BSA optimization challenges.

Boron-Containing MOF Nanoparticles with Stable Metabolism in U87-MG Cells Combining Microdosimetry To Evaluate Relative Biological Effectiveness of Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

Accurate prediction of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is challenging. The therapy is different from other radiotherapy; the dynamic distribution of boron-containing compounds in tumor cells affects the therapeutic outcome considerably and hampers accurate measurement of the neutron-absorbed dose. Herein, we used boron-containing metal-organic framework nanoparticles (BMOFs) with high boron content to target U87-MG cells and maintain the concentration of the 10B isotope in cells. The content of boron in the cells could maintain 90% (60 ppm) within 20 min compared with that at the beginning; therefore, the accurate RBE of BNCT can be acquired. The effects of BNCT upon cells after neutron irradiation were observed, and the neutron-absorbed dose was obtained by Monte Carlo simulations. The RBE of BMOFs was 6.78, which was 4.1-fold higher than that of a small-molecule boron-containing agent (boric acid). The energy spectrum of various particles was analyzed by Monte Carlo simulations, and the RBE was verified theoretically. Our results suggested that the use of nanoparticle-based boron carriers in BNCT may have many advantages and that maintaining a stable boron distribution within cells may significantly improve the efficiency of BNCT.

Amino Acid-Based Boron Carriers in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT)

Interest in the design of boronated amino acids has emerged, partly due to the utilization of boronophenylalanine (BPA), one of the two agents employed in clinical Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT). The boronated amino acids synthesized thus far for BNCT investigations can be classified into two categories based on the source of boron: boronic acids or carboranes. Amino acid-based boron carriers, employed in the context of BNCT treatment, demonstrate significant potential in the treatment of challenging tumors, such as those located in the brain. This review aims to shed light on the developmental journey and challenges encountered over the years in the field of amino acid-based boron delivery compound development. The primary focus centers on the utilization of the large amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) as a target for boron carriers in BNCT. The development of efficient carriers remains a critical objective, addressing challenges related to tumor specificity, effective boron delivery, and rapid clearance from normal tissue and blood. LAT1 presents an intriguing and promising target for boron delivery, given its numerous characteristics that make it well suited for drug delivery into tumor tissues, particularly in the case of brain tumors.

Proposal of recommended experimental protocols for in vitro and in vivo evaluation methods of boron agents for neutron capture therapy

Recently, boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) has been attracting attention as a minimally invasive cancer treatment. In 2020, the accelerator-based BNCT with L-BPA (Borofalan) as its D-sorbitol complex (Steboronine®) for head and neck cancers was approved by Pharmaceutical and Medical Devices Agency for the first time in the world. As accelerator-based neutron generation techniques are being developed in various countries, the development of novel tumor-selective boron agents is becoming increasingly important and desired. The Japanese Society of Neutron Capture Therapy believes it is necessary to propose standard evaluation protocols at each stage in the development of boron agents for BNCT. This review summarizes recommended experimental protocols for in vitro and in vivo evaluation methods of boron agents for BNCT based on our experience with L-BPA approval.

Perceptions of Canadian Radiation Oncologists, Medical Physicists, and Radiation Trainees about the Feasibility and Need of Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) in Canada: A National Survey

BACKGROUND

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is an emerging radiotherapy. There are ongoing efforts to develop a Canadian accelerator-based BNCT center. However, it remains unclear how Canadian radiation oncologists (RO), medical physicists (MP), and their trainees perceive BNCT and its impact on radiation oncology as a discipline.

METHODS

A survey was created to explore the knowledge of BNCT, its clinical role, and the support for Canadian research. It was distributed through the Canadian Association of Radiation Oncology (CARO) and the Canadian Organization of Medical Physicists (COMP).

RESULTS

We received 118 valid responses from all 10 provinces, from 70 RO (59.3%) and 48 MP (40.7%), including 9 residents. Most knew of BNCT and its indications (60.2%). Although many were unaware of the reasons behind early failures (44.1%), common reasons were a lack of clinical trials and an inaccessibility of neutron sources (42.4%) as well as reactor unsuitability (34.7%). Additionally, 90.6% showed definite (66.9%) or possible (23.7%) support for Canadian BNCT research, while 89% indicated a definite (56.8%) or possible (32.2%) willingness for BNCT referrals.

CONCLUSIONS

Most ROs and MPs supported Canadian BNCT research and would refer patients. However, limited awareness and a lack of experiences remain a challenge. Educational sessions are needed to realize this innovative cancer treatment in Canada.

Initial evaluation of accelerator-based neutron source system at the Shonan Kamakura General Hospital

An accelerator-based boron neutron capture therapy (AB-BNCT) system was installed at the Shonan Kamakura General Hospital (SKGH). We confirmed that a stable operation was possible for 1 h at a current of 30 mA. The evaluated thermal neutron flux was 2.8 × 10⁹ cm^-2 s^-1 and in good agreement (±5%) with the calculated values. The daily variation was within ±2%. The ambient dose rate due to residual radioactivity after irradiation was approximately 5 μSv/h using a lead shutter.

Prompt gamma ray detection and imaging for boron neutron capture therapy using CdTe detector and novel detector shield - Monte Carlo study

BACKGROUND

For boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), the improvements in patient dosimetry will require information about the spatial variation of ¹⁰ B concentration in the tumor and critical organs. A non-invasive approach, based on the detection of prompt gamma (PG) rays from the BNC reaction, may be well-suited to obtain such information. The detectability of the BNC PG rays has been shown experimentally utilizing energy-resolving cadmium telluride (CdTe) detectors. However, the feasibility of this approach under the clinically relevant conditions of BNCT is currently unknown.

PURPOSE

The present work aimed to investigate the aforementioned feasibility by performing Monte Carlo (MC) simulations under the phantom irradiation geometry relevant to accelerator-based BNCT (a-BNCT). Especially, this investigation focused on demonstrating the enhanced detection of the BNC PG rays using a novel neutron shield for CdTe detectors. Upon demonstrating the efficacy of the proposed detector shield, the BNC PG ray-based quantitative imaging of clinically relevant concentrations of ¹⁰ B was also demonstrated.

METHODS

The Geant4 MC simulation toolkit was used to model the phantom irradiation by an epithermal neutron beam as well as the detection of the BNC PG rays from the phantom by CdTe detectors with and without the proposed gadolinium (Gd)-based detector shield. It was also used to model the BNC PG ray-based quantitative imaging of ¹⁰ B concentrations under a-BNCT scenarios. Each model included a 20 cm-diameter/24 cm-height cylindrical PMMA phantom containing ¹⁰ B inserts at various concentrations. Arrays of CdTe crystals of 5 × 5 × 1 mm³ each (up to 120 in the case of a ring detector) were modeled for acquiring the BNC PG ray signals and quantitative imaging.

RESULTS

According to the MC simulations, thermalized neutrons from the phantom were found to reach the CdTe detector and captured by Cd and Te, resulting in the gamma ray background noise that directly interfered with the BNC PG ray signal. The proposed Gd-based detector shield was found to be highly effective in shielding thermal neutrons from the phantom, thereby reducing the unwanted gamma ray background noise. Owing to this shield, the detection of as low as seven parts-per-million (ppm) of ¹⁰ B within the phantom of clinically relevant size was possible using 20 billion incident neutron histories. Furthermore, quantitative imaging of ¹⁰ B distributed at low concentration (down to 50 ppm) within the phantom was demonstrated using computed tomography (CT) simulations with 16 billion incident neutron histories per angular projection. The ¹⁰ B detection limit (7.5 ppm) was also estimated using the reconstructed CT image. Both ¹⁰ B detection limits determined from this investigation are deemed clinically relevant for BNCT.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed Gd-based detector shield played an essential role for achieving the currently reported ¹⁰ B detection limits. Overall, the present MC simulation work demonstrated highly sensitive BNC PG ray detection and imaging under a-BNCT scenarios using CdTe detectors coupled with a novel detector shield.

Analyzing spatial distribution between 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 18F-boronophenylalanine positron emission tomography to investigate selection indicators for boron neutron capture therapy

BACKGROUND

¹⁸F-FDG PET is often utilized to determine BNCT selection due to the limited availability of ¹⁸F-BPA PET, which is performed by synthesizing ¹⁸F into the boron drug used for BNCT, although the uptake mechanisms between those are different. Additionally, only a few non-spatial point parameters, such as maximum SUV (SUV_max), have reported a correlation between those in previous studies. This study aimed to investigate the spatial accumulation pattern between those PET images in tumors, which would be expected to either show higher uptake on ¹⁸F-BPA PET or be utilized in clinical, to verify whether ¹⁸F-FDG PET could be used as a selection indicator for BNCT.

METHODS

A total of 27 patients with 30 lesions (11 squamous cell carcinoma, 9 melanoma, and 10 rhabdomyosarcoma) who received ¹⁸F-FDG and ¹⁸F-BPA PET within 2 weeks were enrolled in this study. The ratio of metabolic tumor volumes (MTVs) to GTV, histogram indices (skewness/kurtosis), and the correlation of total lesion activity (TLA) and non-spatial point parameters (SUV_max, SUV_peak, SUV_min, maximum tumor-to-normal tissue ratio (T_max/N), and T_min/N) were evaluated. After local rigid registration between those images, distances of locations at SUV_max and the center of mass with MTVs on each image and similarity indices were also assessed along its coordinate.

RESULTS

In addition to SUV_max, SUV_peak, and T_max/N, significant correlations were found in TLA. The mean distance in SUV_max was [Formula: see text] and significantly longer than that in the center of mass with MTVs. The ratio of MTVs to GTV, skewness, and kurtosis were not significantly different. However, the similarities of MTVs were considerably low. The similarity indices of Dice similarity coefficient, Jaccard coefficient, and mean distance to agreement for MTV40 were [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text], and [Formula: see text] cm, respectively. Furthermore, it was worse in MTV50. In addition, spatial accumulation patterns varied in cancer types.

CONCLUSIONS

Spatial accumulation patterns in tumors showed low similarity between ¹⁸F-FDG and ¹⁸F-BPA PET, although the various non-spatial point parameters were correlated. In addition, the spatial accumulation patterns were considerably different in cancer types. Therefore, the selection for BNCT using ¹⁸F-FDG PET should be compared carefully with using ¹⁸F-FBPA PET.

The Development of Boron Analysis and Imaging in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT)

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is a selective biological targeted nuclide technique for cancer therapy. It has the following attractive features: good targeting, high effectiveness, and causes slight damage to surrounding healthy tissue compared with other traditional methods. It has been considered as one of the promising methods for the treatment of various cancers. Measuring ¹⁰B concentrations is vital for BNCT. However, the existing technology and equipment cannot satisfy the real-time and accurate measurement requirements, and more efficient methods are in demand. The development of methods and imaging applied in BNCT to help measure boron concentration is described in this review.

Multimodal evaluation of 19F-BPA internalization in pancreatic cancer cells for boron capture and proton therapy potential applications

PURPOSE

One of the obstacles to the application of Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) and Proton Boron Fusion Therapy (PBFT) concerns the measurement of borated carriers' biodistribution. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro internalization of the ¹⁹F-labelled p-boronophenylalanine (¹⁹F-BPA) in the human cancer pancreatic cell line (PANC-1) for the potential application of BNCT and PBFT in pancreatic cancer. The ¹⁹F-BPA carrier has the advantage that its bio-distribution may be monitored in vivo using ¹⁹F-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (¹⁹F NMR).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ¹⁹F-BPA internalization in PANC-1 cells was evaluated using three independent techniques on cellular samples left in contact with growing medium enriched with 13.6 mM ¹⁹F-BPA corresponding to a ¹¹B concentration of 120 ppm: neutron autoradiography, which quantifies boron; liquid chromatography hyphenated to tandem mass spectrometry and UV-Diode Array Detection (UV-DAD), which quantifies ¹⁹F-BPA molecule; and ¹⁹F NMR spectroscopy, which detects fluorine nuclei.

RESULTS

Our studies suggested that ¹⁹F-BPA is internalized by PANC-1 cells. The three methods provided consistent results of about 50% internalization fraction at 120 ppm of ¹¹B. Small variations (less than 15%) in internalization fraction are mainly dependent on the proliferation state of the cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The ability of ¹⁹F NMR spectroscopy to study ¹⁹F-BPA internalization was validated by well-established independent techniques. The multimodal approach we used suggests ¹⁹F-BPA as a promising BNCT/PBFT carrier for the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Since the quantification is performed at doses useful for BNCT/PBFT, ¹⁹F NMR can be envisaged to monitor ¹⁹F-BPA bio-distribution during the therapy.

Beam port filters in a TRIGA MARK III nuclear reactor to produce epithermal neutrons for BNCT

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common and aggressive brain tumor and it is difficult to treat with conventional surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy. An alternative treatment is boron neutron capture therapy which requires an energy modulated beam of neutrons and a¹⁰B drug capable of adhering to the tumor. In this work, MCNP6 Monte Carlo code was used to evaluate the effect on the neutron spectrum by placing two filters along the radial beam tube of the TRIGA Mark III nuclear reactor of ININ in Mexico. Every filter was made with the same amount and type of materials: Steel and Graphite for filter 1 and Cadmium, Aluminum, and Cadmium (Cd + Al + Cd) for filter 2. Two cases were analyzed for each filter as follows: Case A for filter 1 was considering 30 cm of steel and 30 cm of graphite, while for case B, the dimensions of filter 1 were 15 cm of steel, 15 cm of graphite, 15 cm of steel and 15 cm of graphite. Cases A and B for filter 2 were analyzed considering the same dimensions and amount of materials. The work was in the aim to produce epithermal neutrons for boron neutron capture therapy. Neutron spectra were calculated at three sites along the beam tube and two sites outside the beam tube; here, the ambient dose equivalent, the personal dose equivalent, and the effective doses were also estimated. At a distance of 517 cm of core, in case B, results in an epithermal-to-thermal neutron fluence ratio of 30.39 was obtained being larger than the one recommended by the IAEA of 20.

Homocystamide Conjugates of Human Serum Albumin as a Platform to Prepare Bimodal Multidrug Delivery Systems for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

Boron neutron capture therapy is a unique form of adjuvant cancer therapy for various malignancies including malignant gliomas. The conjugation of boron compounds and human serum albumin (HSA)-a carrier protein with a long plasma half-life-is expected to extend systemic circulation of the boron compounds and increase their accumulation in human glioma cells. We report on the synthesis of fluorophore-labeled homocystamide conjugates of human serum albumin and their use in thiol-'click' chemistry to prepare novel multimodal boronated albumin-based theranostic agents, which could be accumulated in tumor cells. The novelty of this work involves the development of the synthesis methodology of albumin conjugates for the imaging-guided boron neutron capture therapy combination. Herein, we suggest using thenoyltrifluoroacetone as a part of an anticancer theranostic construct: approximately 5.4 molecules of thenoyltrifluoroacetone were bound to each albumin. Along with its beneficial properties as a chemotherapeutic agent, thenoyltrifluoroacetone is a promising magnetic resonance imaging agent. The conjugation of bimodal HSA with undecahydro-closo-dodecaborate only slightly reduced human glioma cell line viability in the absence of irradiation (~30 μM of boronated albumin) but allowed for neutron capture and decreased tumor cell survival under epithermal neutron flux. The simultaneous presence of undecahydro-closo-dodecaborate and labeled amino acid residues (fluorophore dye and fluorine atoms) in the obtained HSA conjugate makes it a promising candidate for the combination imaging-guided boron neutron capture therapy.

Dose Calculation Algorithms for External Radiation Therapy: An Overview for Practitioners

Radiation therapy (RT) is a constantly evolving therapeutic technique; improvements are continuously being introduced for both methodological and practical aspects. Among the features that have undergone a huge evolution in recent decades, dose calculation algorithms are still rapidly changing. This process is propelled by the awareness that the agreement between the delivered and calculated doses is of paramount relevance in RT, since it could largely affect clinical outcomes. The aim of this work is to provide an overall picture of the main dose calculation algorithms currently used in RT, summarizing their underlying physical models and mathematical bases, and highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, referring to the most recent studies on algorithm comparisons. This handy guide is meant to provide a clear and concise overview of the topic, which will prove useful in helping clinical medical physicists to perform their responsibilities more effectively and efficiently, increasing patient benefits and improving the overall quality of the management of radiation treatment.

Progress of molecular targeted therapy for head and neck cancer in clinical aspects

Since the body's head and neck area affects many functions such as breathing, swallowing, and speaking, systemic treatments to head and neck cancer patients are important not only for survival but also for preserving functions and quality of life. With the progress that has been made in molecular targeted therapy, anti-EGFR antibody (cetuximab) and immune checkpoint inhibitors (nivolumab, pembrolizumab) have provided survival benefits to head and neck cancer patients and are approved for clinical practice. Clinical trials incorporating these new drugs for patients with locally advanced head/neck cancers are underway. However, the existing clinical evidence regarding molecular targeted drugs for head and neck cancers is based mostly on clinical trials allocated to squamous cell carcinoma patients. New targeted therapies for non-squamous cell carcinoma patients were recently reported, e.g., tyrosine kinase inhibitors for the treatment of thyroid cancers and HER2-targeted therapy for salivary gland cancers. With the goal of improving local control, molecular targeted treatment strategies as salvage local therapy are being investigated, including boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT). Herein the history and landscape of molecular targeted therapy for head and neck cancers are summarized and reviewed.

Theranostics in Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) has the potential to specifically destroy tumor cells without damaging the tissues infiltrated by the tumor. BNCT is a binary treatment method based on the combination of two agents that have no effect when applied individually: ¹⁰B and thermal neutrons. Exclusively, the combination of both produces an effect, whose extent depends on the amount of ¹⁰B in the tumor but also on the organs at risk. It is not yet possible to determine the ¹⁰B concentration in a specific tissue using non-invasive methods. At present, it is only possible to measure the ¹⁰B concentration in blood and to estimate the boron concentration in tissues based on the assumption that there is a fixed uptake of ¹⁰B from the blood into tissues. On this imprecise assumption, BNCT can hardly be developed further. A therapeutic approach, combining the boron carrier for therapeutic purposes with an imaging tool, might allow us to determine the ¹⁰B concentration in a specific tissue using a non-invasive method. This review provides an overview of the current clinical protocols and preclinical experiments and results on how innovative drug development for boron delivery systems can also incorporate concurrent imaging. The last section focuses on the importance of proteomics for further optimization of BNCT, a highly precise and personalized therapeutic approach.

Optimized beam shaping assembly for a 2.1-MeV proton-accelerator-based neutron source for boron neutron capture therapy

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is facing a new era where different projects based on accelerators instead of reactors are under development. The new facilities can be placed at hospitals and will increase the number of clinical trials. The therapeutic effect of BNCT can be improved if a optimized epithermal neutron spectrum is obtained, for which the beam shape assembly is a key ingredient. In this paper we propose an optimal beam shaping assembly suited for an affordable low energy accelerator. The beam obtained with the device proposed accomplishes all the IAEA recommendations for proton energies between 2.0 and 2.1 MeV. In addition, there is an overall improvement of the figures of merit with respect to BNCT facilities and previous proposals of new accelerator-based facilities.

Biocompatible Iron-Boron Nanoparticles Designed for Neutron Capture Therapy Guided by Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The combination of multiple functions in a single nanoparticle (NP) represents a key advantage of nanomedicine compared to traditional medical approaches. This is well represented by radiotherapy in which the dose of ionizing radiation should be calibrated on sensitizers biodistribution. Ideally, this is possible when the drug acts both as radiation enhancer and imaging contrast agent. Here, an easy, one-step, laser-assisted synthetic procedure is used to generate iron-boron (Fe-B) NPs featuring the set of functions required to assist neutron capture therapy (NCT) with magnetic resonance imaging. The Fe-B NPs exceed by three orders of magnitude the payload of boron isotopes contained in clinical sensitizers. The Fe-B NPs have magnetic properties of interest also for magnetophoretic accumulation in tissues and magnetic hyperthermia to assist drug permeation in tissues. Besides, Fe-B NPs are biocompatible and undergo slow degradation in the lysosomal environment that facilitates in vivo clearance through the liver-spleen-kidneys pathway. Overall, the Fe-B NPs represent a new promising tool for future exploitation in magnetic resonance imaging-guided boron NCT at higher levels of efficacy and tolerability.

A Novel Approach to Design and Evaluate BNCT Neutron Beams Combining Physical, Radiobiological, and Dosimetric Figures of Merit

(1) Background:The quality of neutron beams for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is currently defined by its physical characteristics in air. Recommendations exist to define whether a designed beam is useful for clinical treatment. This work presents a new way to evaluate neutron beams based on their clinical performance and on their safety, employing radiobiological quantities. (2) Methods: The case study is a neutron beam for deep-seated tumors from a 5 MeV proton beam coupled to a beryllium target. Physical Figures of Merit were used to design five beams; however, they did not allow a clear ranking of their quality in terms of therapeutic potential. The latter was then evaluated based on in-phantom dose distributions and on the calculation of the Uncomplicated Tumor Control Probability (UTCP). The safety of the beams was also evaluated calculating the in-patient out-of-beam dosimetry. (3) Results: All the beams ensured a UTCP comparable to the one of a clinical beam in phantom; the safety criterion allowed to choose the best candidate. When this was tested in the treatment planning of a real patient treated in Finland, the UTCP was still comparable to the one of the clinical beam. (4) Conclusions: Even when standard physical recommendations are not met, radiobiological and dosimetric criteria demonstrate to be a valid tool to select an effective and safe beam for patient treatment.

Aza-BODIPY: A New Vector for Enhanced Theranostic Boron Neutron Capture Therapy Applications

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is a radiotherapeutic modality based on the nuclear capture of slow neutrons by stable ¹⁰B atoms followed by charged particle emission that inducing extensive damage on a very localized level (<10 μm). To be efficient, a sufficient amount of ¹⁰B should accumulate in the tumor area while being almost cleared from the normal surroundings. A water-soluble aza-boron-dipyrromethene dyes (BODIPY) fluorophore was reported to strongly accumulate in the tumor area with high and BNCT compatible Tumor/Healthy Tissue ratios. The clinically used ¹⁰B-BSH (sodium borocaptate) was coupled to the water-soluble aza-BODIPY platform for enhanced ¹⁰B-BSH tumor vectorization. We demonstrated a strong uptake of the compound in tumor cells and determined its biodistribution in mice-bearing tumors. A model of chorioallantoic membrane-bearing glioblastoma xenograft was developed to evidence the BNCT potential of such compound, by subjecting it to slow neutrons. We demonstrated the tumor accumulation of the compound in real-time using optical imaging and ex vivo using elemental imaging based on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. The tumor growth was significantly reduced as compared to BNCT with ¹⁰B-BSH. Altogether, the fluorescent aza-BODIPY/¹⁰B-BSH compound is able to vectorize and image the ¹⁰B-BSH in the tumor area, increasing its theranostic potential for efficient approach of BNCT.

Clustered DNA Damage: Electronic Properties and Their Influence on Charge Transfer. 7,8-Dihydro-8-Oxo-2'-Deoxyguaosine Versus 5',8-Cyclo-2'-Deoxyadenosines: A Theoretical Approach

Approximately 3 × 10¹⁷ DNA damage events take place per hour in the human body. Within clustered DNA lesions, they pose a serious problem for repair proteins, especially for iron–sulfur glycosylases (MutyH), which can recognize them by the electron-transfer process. It has been found that the presence of both 5′,8-cyclo-2′-deoxyadenosine (cdA) diastereomers in the ds-DNA structure, as part of a clustered lesion, can influence vertical radical cation distribution within the proximal part of the double helix, i.e., d[~oxoGcAoxoG~] (7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2′-deoxyguaosine - ^oxodG). Here, the influence of cdA, “the simplest tandem lesion”, on the charge transfer through ds-DNA was taken into theoretical consideration at the M062x/6-31+G** level of theory in the aqueous phase. It was shown that the presence of (5′S)- or (5′R)-cdA leads to a slowdown in the hole transfer by one order of magnitude between the neighboring dG→^oxodG in comparison to “native” ds-DNA. Therefore, it can be concluded that such clustered lesions can lead to defective damage recognition with a subsequent slowing down of the DNA repair process, giving rise to an increase in mutations. As a result, the unrepaired, ^oxodG: dA base pair prior to genetic information replication can finally result in GC → TA or AT→CG transversion. This type of mutation is commonly observed in human cancer cells. Moreover, because local multiple damage sites (LMSD) are effectively produced as a result of ionization factors, the presented data in this article might be useful in developing a new scheme of radiotherapy treatment against the background of DNA repair efficiency.

Optimization of double layered beam shaping assembly using genetic algorithm

The genetic algorithm method is a new method used to obtain radiation beams that meet the IAEA requirements. This method is used in optimization of configurations and compositions of materials that compose double layered Beam Shaping Assembly (BSA). The double layered BSA is modeled as having two layers of material for each of the components, which are the moderator, reflector, collimator, and filter. Up to 21st generation, the optimization results in four (4) individuals having the capacity to generate the most optimum radiation beams. The best configuration, producing the most optimum radiation beams, is attained by using combinations of materials, that is by combining Al with either one of CaF2 and PbF2for moderator; combining Pb material with either Ni or Pb for reflector; combining Ni and either FeC or C for collimator, and FeC+LiF and Cd for fast and thermal neutron filter. The parameters of radiation resulted from the four configurations of double layer BSA adequately satisfy the standard of the IAEA.

Comparison between proton boron fusion therapy (PBFT) and boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT): a monte carlo study

The aim of this study is to compare between proton boron fusion therapy (PBFT) and boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and to analyze dose escalation using a Monte Carlo simulation. We simulated a proton beam passing through the water with a boron uptake region (BUR) in MCNPX. To estimate the interaction between neutrons/protons and borons by the alpha particle, the simulation yielded with a variation of the center of the BUR location and proton energies. The variation and influence about the alpha particle were observed from the percent depth dose (PDD) and cross-plane dose profile of both the neutron and proton beams. The peak value of the maximum dose level when the boron particle was accurately labeled at the region was 192.4% among the energies. In all, we confirmed that prompt gamma rays of 478 keV and 719 keV were generated by the nuclear reactions in PBFT and BNCT, respectively. We validated the dramatic effectiveness of the alpha particle, especially in PBFT. The utility of PBFT was verified using the simulation and it has a potential for application in radiotherapy.

A 13C(d,n)-based epithermal neutron source for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

PURPOSE

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) requires neutron sources suitable for in-hospital siting. Low-energy particle accelerators working in conjunction with a neutron producing reaction are the most appropriate choice for this purpose. One of the possible nuclear reactions is ¹³C(d,n)¹⁴N. The aim of this work is to evaluate the therapeutic capabilities of the neutron beam produced by this reaction, through a 30mA beam of deuterons of 1.45MeV.

METHODS

A Beam Shaping Assembly design was computationally optimized. Depth dose profiles in a Snyder head phantom were simulated with the MCNP code for a number of BSA configurations. In order to optimize the treatment capabilities, the BSA configuration was determined as the one that allows maximizing both the tumor dose and the penetration depth while keeping doses to healthy tissues under the tolerance limits.

RESULTS

Significant doses to tumor tissues were achieved up to ∼6cm in depth. Peak doses up to 57Gy-Eq can be delivered in a fractionated scheme of 2 irradiations of approximately 1h each. In a single 1h irradiation, lower but still acceptable doses to tumor are also feasible.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment capabilities obtained here are comparable to those achieved with other accelerator-based neutron sources, making of the ¹³C(d,n)¹⁴N reaction a realistic option for producing therapeutic neutron beams through a low-energy particle accelerator.

Drug and gene delivery across the blood-brain barrier with focused ultrasound

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) remains one of the most significant limitations to treatments of central nervous system (CNS) disorders including brain tumors, neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders. It is now well-established that focused ultrasound (FUS) in conjunction with contrast agent microbubbles may be used to non-invasively and temporarily disrupt the BBB, allowing localized delivery of systemically administered therapeutic agents as large as 100nm in size to the CNS. Importantly, recent technological advances now permit FUS application through the intact human skull, obviating the need for invasive and risky surgical procedures. When used in combination with magnetic resonance imaging, FUS may be applied precisely to pre-selected CNS targets. Indeed, FUS devices capable of sub-millimeter precision are currently in several clinical trials. FUS mediated BBB disruption has the potential to fundamentally change how CNS diseases are treated, unlocking potential for combinatorial treatments with nanotechnology, markedly increasing the efficacy of existing therapeutics that otherwise do not cross the BBB effectively, and permitting safe repeated treatments. This article comprehensively reviews recent studies on the targeted delivery of therapeutics into the CNS with FUS and offers perspectives on the future of this technology.

Confirmation of a realistic reactor model for BNCT dosimetry at the TRIGA Mainz

PURPOSE

In order to build up a reliable dose monitoring system for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) applications at the TRIGA reactor in Mainz, a computer model for the entire reactor was established, simulating the radiation field by means of the Monte Carlo method. The impact of different source definition techniques was compared and the model was validated by experimental fluence and dose determinations.

METHODS

The depletion calculation code origen2 was used to compute the burn-up and relevant material composition of each burned fuel element from the day of first reactor operation to its current core. The material composition of the current core was used in a mcnp5 model of the initial core developed earlier. To perform calculations for the region outside the reactor core, the model was expanded to include the thermal column and compared with the previously established attila model. Subsequently, the computational model is simplified in order to reduce the calculation time. Both simulation models are validated by experiments with different setups using alanine dosimetry and gold activation measurements with two different types of phantoms.

RESULTS

The mcnp5 simulated neutron spectrum and source strength are found to be in good agreement with the previous attila model whereas the photon production is much lower. Both mcnp5 simulation models predict all experimental dose values with an accuracy of about 5%. The simulations reveal that a Teflon environment favorably reduces the gamma dose component as compared to a polymethyl methacrylate phantom.

CONCLUSIONS

A computer model for BNCT dosimetry was established, allowing the prediction of dosimetric quantities without further calibration and within a reasonable computation time for clinical applications. The good agreement between the mcnp5 simulations and experiments demonstrates that the attila model overestimates the gamma dose contribution. The detailed model can be used for the planning of structural modifications in the thermal column irradiation channel or the use of different irradiation sites than the thermal column, e.g., the beam tubes.

Intracavitary moderator balloon combined with (252)Cf brachytherapy and boron neutron capture therapy, improving dosimetry in brain tumour and infiltrations

OBJECTIVE

This article proposes a combination of californium-252 ((252)Cf) brachytherapy, boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and an intracavitary moderator balloon catheter applied to brain tumour and infiltrations.

METHODS

Dosimetric evaluations were performed on three protocol set-ups: (252)Cf brachytherapy combined with BNCT (Cf-BNCT); Cf-BNCT with a balloon catheter filled with light water (LWB) and the same set-up with heavy water (HWB).

RESULTS

Cf-BNCT-HWB has presented dosimetric advantages to Cf-BNCT-LWB and Cf-BNCT in infiltrations at 2.0-5.0 cm from the balloon surface. However, Cf-BNCT-LWB has shown superior dosimetry up to 2.0 cm from the balloon surface.

CONCLUSION

Cf-BNCT-HWB and Cf-BNCT-LWB protocols provide a selective dose distribution for brain tumour and infiltrations, mainly further from the (252)Cf source, sparing the normal brain tissue.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

Malignant brain tumours grow rapidly and often spread to adjacent brain tissues, leading to death. Improvements in brain radiation protocols have been continuously achieved; however, brain tumour recurrence is observed in most cases. Cf-BNCT-LWB and Cf-BNCT-HWB represent new modalities for selectively combating brain tumour infiltrations and metastasis.

Tumor-specific delivery of BSH-3R for boron neutron capture therapy and positron emission tomography imaging in a mouse brain tumor model

Glioblastoma, a malignant brain tumor with poor disease outcomes, is managed in modern medicine by multimodality therapy. Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is an encouraging treatment under clinical investigation. In malignant cells, BNCT consists of two major factors: neutron radiation and boron uptake. To increase boron uptake in cells, we created a mercapto-closo-undecahydrododecaborate ([B12HnSH](2-)2Na(+), BSH) fused with a short arginine peptide (1R, 2R, 3R) and checked cellular uptake in vitro and in vivo. In a mouse brain tumor model, only BSH with at least three arginine domains could penetrate cell membranes of glioma cells in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, to monitor the pharmacokinetic properties of these agents in vivo, we fused BSH and BSH-3R with 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA); DOTA is a metal chelating agent for labeling positron emission tomography (PET) probe with (64)Cu. We administered BSH-DOTA-(64)Cu and BSH-3R-DOTA-(64)Cu to the tumor model through a mouse tail vein and determined the drugs' pharmacokinetics by PET imaging. BSH-3R showed a high uptake in the tumor area on PET imaging. We concluded that BSH-3R is the ideal boron compound for clinical use during BNCT and that in developing this compound for clinical use, the BSH-3R PET probe is essential for pharmacokinetic imaging.

A theranostic approach based on the use of a dual boron/Gd agent to improve the efficacy of Boron Neutron Capture Therapy in the lung cancer treatment

This study aims at developing an innovative theranostic approach for lung tumor and metastases treatment, based on Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT). It relies on to the use of low density lipoproteins (LDL) as carriers able to maximize the selective uptake of boron atoms in tumor cells and, at the same time, to quantify the in vivo boron distribution by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Tumor cells uptake was initially assessed by ICP-MS and MRI on four types of tumor (TUBO, B16-F10, MCF-7, A549) and one healthy (N-MUG) cell lines. Lung metastases were generated by intravenous injection of a Her2+ breast cancer cell line (i.e. TUBO) in BALB/c mice and transgenic EML4-ALK mice were used as primary tumor model. After neutron irradiation, tumor growth was followed for 30-40 days by MRI. Tumor masses of boron treated mice increased markedly slowly than the control group. From the clinical editor: In this article, the authors described an improvement to existing boron neutron capture therapy. The dual MRI/BNCT agent, carried by LDLs, was able to maximize the selective uptake of boron in tumor cells, and, at the same time, quantify boron distribution in tumor and in other tissues using MRI. Subsequent in vitro and in vivo experiments showed tumor cell killing after neutron irradiation.

A study on the optimum fast neutron flux for boron neutron capture therapy of deep-seated tumors

High-energy neutrons, named fast neutrons which have a number of undesirable biological effects on tissue, are a challenging problem in beam designing for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy, BNCT. In spite of this fact, there is not a widely accepted criterion to guide the beam designer to determine the appropriate contribution of fast neutrons in the spectrum. Although a number of researchers have proposed a target value for the ratio of fast neutron flux to epithermal neutron flux, it can be shown that this criterion may not provide the optimum treatment condition. This simulation study deals with the determination of the optimum contribution of fast neutron flux in the beam for BNCT of deep-seated tumors. Since the dose due to these high-energy neutrons damages shallow tissues, delivered dose to skin is considered as a measure for determining the acceptability of the designed beam. To serve this purpose, various beam shaping assemblies that result in different contribution of fast neutron flux are designed. The performances of the neutron beams corresponding to such configurations are assessed in a simulated head phantom. It is shown that the previously used criterion, which suggests a limit value for the contribution of fast neutrons in beam, does not necessarily provide the optimum condition. Accordingly, it is important to specify other complementary limits considering the energy of fast neutrons. By analyzing various neutron spectra, two limits on fast neutron flux are proposed and their validity is investigated. The results show that considering these limits together with the widely accepted IAEA criteria makes it possible to have a more realistic assessment of sufficiency of the designed beam. Satisfying these criteria not only leads to reduction of delivered dose to skin, but also increases the advantage depth in tissue and delivered dose to tumor during the treatment time. The Monte Carlo Code, MCNP-X, is used to perform these simulations.

Comparative dosimetry in intracavitary balloon catheter brachytherapy with I-125 and in Cf-252 brachytherapy combined with BNCT for brain tumors

Objective Comparative analysis of dosimetry in intracavitary balloon catheter brachytherapy with I-125 and in Cf-252 brachytherapy combined with BNCT for treatment of brain tumors. Materials and Methods Simulations of intracavitary balloon catheter brachytherapy with I-125 and in Cf-252 brachytherapy combined with BNCT were performed with the MCNP5 code, modeling the treatment of a brain tumor on a voxel computational phantom representing a human head. Absorbed dose rates were converted into biologically weighted dose rates. Results Intracavitary balloon catheter brachytherapy with I-125 produced biologically weighted mean dose rates of 3.2E-11, 1.3E-10, 1.9E-11 and 6.9E-13 RBE.Gy.h-1.p-1.s, respectively, on the healthy tissue, on the balloon periphery and on the I 1 and I 2 tumor infiltration zones. On the other hand, Cf-252 brachytherapy combined with BNCT produced a biologically weighted mean dose rate of 5.2E-09, 2.3E-07, 8.7E-09 and 2.4E-09 RBE.Gy.h-1.p-1.s, respectively on the healthy tissue, on the target tumor and on the I 1 and I 2 infiltration zones. Conclusion Cf-252 brachytherapy combined with BNCT delivered a selective irradiation to the target tumor and to infiltration zones, while intracavitary balloon catheter brachytherapy with I-125 delivered negligible doses on the tumor infiltration zones.