Formulation and ex vivo evaluation of polymeric nanoparticles for controlled delivery of corticosteroids to the skin and the corneal epithelium

Poly(malic acid)-budesonide nanoconjugates embedded in microparticles for lung administration

To improve the therapeutic activity of inhaled glucocorticoids and reduce potential side effects, we designed a formulation combining the advantages of nanoparticles, which have an enhanced uptake by alveolar cells, allow targeted delivery and sustained drug release, as well as limited drug systemic passage, with those of microparticles, which display good alveolar deposition. Herein, a polymer-drug conjugate, poly(malic acid)-budesonide (PMAB), was first synthesized with either 11, 20, 33, or 43 mol% budesonide (drug:polymer from 1:8 to 3:4), the drug creating hydrophobic domains. The obtained conjugates self-assemble into nanoconjugates in water, yielding excellent drug loading of up to 73 wt%, with 80-100 nm diameters. In vitro assays showed that budesonide could be steadily released from the nanoconjugates, and the anti-inflammatory activity was preserved, as evidenced by reduced cytokine production in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Nanoconjugates were then embedded into microparticles through spray-drying with L-leucine, forming nano-embedded microparticles (NEMs). NEMs were produced with an aerodynamic diameter close to 1 µm and a density below 0.1 g.cm-3, indicative of a high alveolar deposition. NEMs spray-dried with the less hydrophobic nanoconjugates, PMAB 1:4, were readily dissolved in simulated lung fluid and were chosen for in vivo experiments to study pharmacokinetics in healthy rats. As it was released in vivo from NEMs, sustained distribution of budesonide was obtained for 48 h in lung tissue, cells, and lining fluid. With high loading rates, modulable release kinetics, and low cytotoxicity, these nanoconjugates delivered by NEMs are promising for the more efficient treatment of pulmonary inflammatory diseases.

Cutaneous Pharmacokinetics of Topically Applied Novel Dermatological Formulations

Novel formulations are developed for dermatological applications to address a wide range of patient needs and therapeutic challenges. By pushing the limits of pharmaceutical technology, these formulations strive to provide safer, more effective, and patient-friendly solutions for dermatological concerns, ultimately improving the overall quality of dermatological care. The article explores the different types of novel dermatological formulations, including nanocarriers, transdermal patches, microsponges, and microneedles, and the techniques involved in the cutaneous pharmacokinetics of these innovative formulations. Furthermore, the significance of knowing cutaneous pharmacokinetics and the difficulties faced during pharmacokinetic assessment have been emphasized. The article examines all the methods employed for the pharmacokinetic evaluation of novel dermatological formulations. In addition to a concise overview of earlier techniques, discussions on novel methodologies, including tape stripping, in vitro permeation testing, cutaneous microdialysis, confocal Raman microscopy, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry have been conducted. Emerging technologies like the use of microfluidic devices for skin absorption studies and computational models for predicting drug pharmacokinetics have also been discussed. This article serves as a valuable resource for researchers, scientists, and pharmaceutical professionals determined to enhance the development and understanding of novel dermatological drug products and the complex dynamics of cutaneous pharmacokinetics.

Nanoformulations Insights: A Novel Paradigm for Antifungal Therapies and Future Perspectives

Currently, fungal infections are becoming more prevalent worldwide. Subsequently, many antifungal agents are available to cure diseases like pemphigus, athlete's foot, acne, psoriasis, hyperpigmentation, albinism, and skin cancer. Still, they fall short due to pitfalls in physiochemical properties. Conventional medications like lotion, creams, ointments, poultices, and gels are available for antifungal therapy but present many shortcomings. They are associated with drug retention and poor penetration problems, resulting in drug resistance, hypersensitivity, and diminished efficacy. On the contrary, nanoformulations have gained tremendous potential in overcoming the drawbacks of conventional delivery. Furthermore, the potential breakthroughs of nanoformulations are site-specific targeting. It has improved bioavailability, patient-tailored approach, reduced drug retention and hypersensitivity, and improved skin penetration. Nowadays, nanoformulations are gaining popularity for antifungal therapy against superficial skin infections. Nanoformulations-based liposomes, niosomes, nanosponges, solid lipid nanoparticles, and potential applications have been explored for antifungal therapy due to enhanced activity and reduced toxicity. Researchers are now more focused on developing patient-oriented target-based nano delivery to cover the lacunas of conventional treatment with higher immune stimulatory effects. Future direction involves the construction of novel nanotherapeutic devices, nanorobotics, and robust methods. In addition, for the preparations of nanoformulations for clinical studies, animal modeling solves the problems of antifungal therapy. This review describes insights into various superficial fungal skin infections and their potential applications, nanocarrier-based drug delivery, and mechanism of action. In addition, it focuses on regulatory considerations, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies, clinical trials, patents, challenges, and future inputs for researchers to improve antifungal therapy.

Advance and Challenges in the Treatment of Skin Diseases with the Transdermal Drug Delivery System

Skin diseases are among the most prevalent non-fatal conditions worldwide. The transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) has emerged as a promising approach for treating skin diseases, owing to its numerous advantages such as high bioavailability, low systemic toxicity, and improved patient compliance. However, the effectiveness of the TDDS is hindered by several factors, including the barrier properties of the stratum corneum, the nature of the drug and carrier, and delivery conditions. In this paper, we provide an overview of the development of the TDDS from first-generation to fourth-generation systems, highlighting the characteristics of each carrier in terms of mechanism composition, penetration method, mechanism of action, and recent preclinical studies. We further investigated the significant challenges encountered in the development of the TDDS and the crucial significance of clinical trials.

Therapeutic applications of nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, as a novel and more specialized branch of science, has provided a number of nanostructures such as nanoparticles, by utilizing the methods, techniques, and protocols of other branches of science. Due to the unique features and physiobiological characteristics, these nanostructures or nanocarriers have provided vast methods and therapeutic techniques, against microbial infections and cancers and for tissue regeneration, tissue engineering, and immunotherapies, and for gene therapies, through drug delivery systems. However, reduced carrying capacity, abrupt and non-targeted delivery, and solubility of therapeutic agents, can affect the therapeutic applications of these biotechnological products. In this article, we explored and discussed the prominent nanobiotechnological methods and products such as nanocarriers, highlighted the features and challenges associated with these products, and attempted to conclude if available nanostructures offer any scope of improvement or enhancement. We aimed to identify and emphasize the nanobiotechnological methods and products, with greater prospect and capacity for therapeutic improvements and enhancements. We found that novel nanocarriers and nanostructures, such as nanocomposites, micelles, hydrogels, microneedles, and artificial cells, can address the associated challenges and inherited drawbacks, with help of conjugations, sustained and stimuli-responsive release, ligand binding, and targeted delivery. We recommend that nanobiotechnology, despite having few challenges and drawbacks, offers immense opportunities that can be harnessed in delivering quality therapeutics with precision and prediction. We also recommend that, by exploring the branched domains more rigorously, bottlenecks and obstacles can also be addressed and resolved in return.

Monitoring dexamethasone skin biodistribution with ex vivo MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry imaging and confocal Raman microscopy

Two of the most promising techniques in terms of ex vivo skin imaging and quantifying are confocal Raman microscopy and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-TOF MSI). Both techniques were set up, and the semiquantitative skin biodistribution of previously developed dexamethasone (DEX) loaded lipomers was compared using Benzalkonium chloride (BAK) as a tracer of the nanoparticles. In MALDI-TOF MSI, DEX was derivatised with GirT (DEX-GirT) and the semiquantitative biodistribution of both DEX-GirT and BAK was successfully obtained. The amount of DEX measured by confocal Raman microscopy was higher than that measured by MALDI-TOF MSI, but MALDI-TOF MSI proved to be a more suitable technique for tracing BAK. An absorption-promoting tendency of DEX loaded in lipomers versus a free-DEX solution was observed in confocal Raman microscopy. The higher spatial resolution of confocal Raman microscopy (350 nm) with respect to MALDI-TOF MSI (50 μm) allowed to observe specific skin structures like hair follicles. Nevertheless, the faster sampling rate of MALDI-TOF-MSI, permitted the analysis of larger tissue regions. In conclusion, both techniques allowed to simultaneously analyze semiquantitative data together with qualitative images of biodistribution, which is a very helpful tool when designing nanoparticles that accumulate in specific anatomical regions.

The Fundamental Role of Lipids in Polymeric Nanoparticles: Dermal Delivery and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Cannabidiol

This report presents a nanoparticulate platform for cannabidiol (CBD) for topical treatment of inflammatory conditions. We have previously shown that stabilizing lipids improve the encapsulation of CBD in ethyl cellulose nanoparticles. In this study, we examined CBD release, skin permeation, and the capability of lipid-stabilized nanoparticles (LSNs) to suppress the release of IL-6 and IL-8. The nanoparticles were stabilized with cetyl alcohol (CA), stearic acid (SA), lauric acid (LA), and an SA/LA eutectic combination (SALA). LSN size and concentration were measured and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), in vitro release of loaded CBD, and skin permeability. IL-6 and IL-8 secretions from TNF-α-induced HaCaT cells were monitored following different LSN treatments. CBD released from the LSNs in dispersion at increasing concentrations of polysorbate 80 showed non-linear solubilization, which was explained by recurrent precipitation. A significant high release of CBD in a cell culture medium was shown from SALA-stabilized nanoparticles. Skin permeation was >30% lower from SA-stabilized nanoparticles compared to the other LSNs. Investigation of the CBD-loaded LSNs' effect on the release of IL-6 and IL-8 from TNF-α-induced HaCaT cells showed that nanoparticles stabilized with CA, LA, or SALA were similarly effective in suppressing cytokine release. The applicability of the CBD-loaded LSNs to treat topical inflammatory conditions has been supported by their dermal permeation and release inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Nanocarriers based novel and effective drug delivery system

Nanotechnology has ultimately come into the domain of drug delivery. Nanosystems for delivery of drugs are promptly emerging science utilizing different nanoparticles as carriers. Biocompatible and stable nanocarriers are novel diagnosis tools or therapy agents for explicitly targeting locates with controllable way. Nanocarriers propose numerous advantages to treat diseases via site-specific as well as targeted delivery of particular therapeutics. In recent times, there are number of outstanding nanocarriers use to deliver bio-, chemo-, or immuno- therapeutic agents to obtain effectual therapeutic reactions and to minimalize unwanted adverse-effects. Nanoparticles possess remarkable potential for active drug delivery. Moreover, conjugation of drugs with nanocarriers protects drugs from metabolic or chemical modifications, through their way to targeted cells and hence increased their bioavailability. In this review, various systems integrated with different types of nanocarriers (inorganic. organic, quantum dots, and carbon nanotubes) having different compositions, physical and chemical properties have been discussed for drug delivery applications.

The Contest of Nanoparticles: Searching for the Most Effective Topical Delivery of Corticosteroids

Owing to their complicated pathophysiology, the treatment of skin diseases necessitates a complex approach. Conventional treatment using topical corticosteroids often results in low effectiveness and the incidence of local or even systemic side effects. Nanoformulation of potent anti-inflammatory drugs has been selected as an optimal strategy for enhanced topical delivery of corticosteroids. In order to assess the efficiency of various nanoformulations, we formulated hydrocortisone (HC) and hydrocortisone-17-butyrate (HCB) into three different systems: lipid nanocapsules (LNC), polymeric nanoparticles (PNP), and ethosomes (ETZ). The systems were characterized using dynamic light scattering for their particle size and uniformity and the morphology of nanoparticles was observed by transmission electron microscopy. The nanosystems were tested using ex vivo full thickness porcine and human skin for the delivery of HC and HCB. The skin penetration was observed by confocal microscopy of fluorescently labelled nanosystems. ETZ were proposed as the most effective delivery system for both transdermal and dermal drug targeting but were also found to have a profound effect on the skin barrier with limited restoration. LNC and PNP were found to have significant effects in the dermal delivery of the actives with only minimal transdermal penetration, especially in case of HCB administration.

Nanoparticles for Topical Application in the Treatment of Skin Dysfunctions-An Overview of Dermo-Cosmetic and Dermatological Products

Nanomaterials (NM) arouse interest in various fields of science and industry due to their composition-tunable properties and the ease of modification. They appear currently as components of many consumer products such as sunscreen, dressings, sports clothes, surface-cleaning agents, computer devices, paints, as well as pharmaceutical and cosmetics formulations. The use of NPs in products for topical applications improves the permeation/penetration of the bioactive compounds into deeper layers of the skin, providing a depot effect with sustained drug release and specific cellular and subcellular targeting. Nanocarriers provide advances in dermatology and systemic treatments. Examples are a non-invasive method of vaccination, advanced diagnostic techniques, and transdermal drug delivery. The mechanism of action of NPs, efficiency of skin penetration, and potential threat to human health are still open and not fully explained. This review gives a brief outline of the latest nanotechnology achievements in products used in topical applications to prevent and treat skin diseases. We highlighted aspects such as the penetration of NPs through the skin (influence of physical-chemical properties of NPs, the experimental models for skin penetration, methods applied to improve the penetration of NPs through the skin, and methods applied to investigate the skin penetration by NPs). The review summarizes various therapies using NPs to diagnose and treat skin diseases (melanoma, acne, alopecia, vitiligo, psoriasis) and anti-aging and UV-protectant nano-cosmetics.

Insights on Development Aspects of Polymeric Nanocarriers: The Translation from Bench to Clinic

Scientists are focusing immense attention on polymeric nanocarriers as a prominent delivery vehicle for several biomedical applications including diagnosis of diseases, delivery of therapeutic agents, peptides, proteins, genes, siRNA, and vaccines due to their exciting physicochemical characteristics which circumvent degradation of unstable drugs, reduce toxic side effects through controlled release, and improve bioavailability. Polymers-based nanocarriers offer numerous benefits for in vivo drug delivery such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-immunogenicity, active drug targeting via surface modification, and controlled release due to their pH-and thermosensitive characteristics. Despite their potential for medicinal use, regulatory approval has been achieved for just a few. In this review, we discuss the historical development of polymers starting from their initial design to their evolution as nanocarriers for therapeutic delivery of drugs, peptides, and genes. The review article also expresses the applications of polymeric nanocarriers in the pharmaceutical and medical industry with a special emphasis on oral, ocular, parenteral, and topical application of drugs, peptides, and genes over the last two decades. The review further examines the practical, regulatory, and clinical considerations of the polymeric nanocarriers, their safety issues, and directinos for future research.

Dry Powder Comprised of Isoniazid-Loaded Nanoparticles of Hyaluronic Acid in Conjugation with Mannose-Anchored Chitosan for Macrophage-Targeted Pulmonary Administration in Tuberculosis

Marketed dosage forms fail to deliver anti-tubercular drugs directly to the lungs in pulmonary Tuberculosis (TB). Therefore, nanomediated isoniazid (INH)-loaded dry powder for inhalation (Nano-DPI) was developed for macrophage-targeted delivery in TB. Mannosylated chitosan (MC) and hyaluronic acid (HA) with an affinity for the surface mannose and CD44 receptors of macrophages were used in conjugation to prepare hybrid nanosuspension by ionic gelation method using cross-linker, sodium tri-polyphosphate (TPP) followed by freeze-drying to obtain a dry powder composed of nanoparticles (INH-MC/HA NPs). Nanoformulations were evaluated for aerodynamic characteristics, cytotoxicity, hemocompatibility, macrophage phenotype analysis, and immune regulation. Cellular uptake imaging was also conducted to evaluate the uptake of NPs. The nanopowders did not pose any significant toxicity to the cells, along with good compatibility with red blood cells (RBCs). The pro-inflammatory costimulatory markers were upregulated, demonstrating the activation of T-cell response. Moreover, the NPs did not show any tolerogenic effect on the macrophages. Furthermore, confocal imaging exhibited the translocation of NPs in the cells. Altogether, the findings present that nano-DPI was found to be a promising vehicle for targeting macrophages.

Development of a nanotechnological hydrogel containing desonide nanocapsules in association with acai oil: design and in vivo evaluation

Nanotechnological products have been used as strategies to optimize the therapy and minimize the side effects of topical corticoids. The objective of this study was to develop hydrogels by the addition of sclerotium gum to the suspensions of desonide-loaded açai oil-based nanocapsules and to study their biological effect using an animal model of acute skin inflammation. The hydrogels presented a pH compatible with topical application (4.4 to 5.0), nanometric mean diameter (131 to 165 nm), pseudoplastic behavior, and stability under room conditions during 30 days. The in vitro skin permeation/penetration study demonstrated that a higher amount of desonide (p < 0.05) was retained in the epidermis from the nanotechnological-hydrogels (0.33 to 0.36 µg.cm²) in comparison to the commercial gel cream (0.16 µg.cm²). In the dermis, the nanostructured hydrogels promoted a lower DES retention compared to the non-nanostructured formulations (p < 0.05). This result may indicate a smaller amount of drug reaching the bloodstream and, thus, fewer side effects can be expected. Concerning the anti-inflammatory effect, the developed hydrogels reduced both ear edema and inflammatory cell infiltration, showing an effect comparable to the commercially available formulation, which presents twice the drug concentration. The hydrogels developed may be considered a promising approach to treat dermatological disorders.

Cellulose Hydrogels Containing Geraniol and Icaridin Encapsulated in Zein Nanoparticles for Arbovirus Control

The most important arboviruses are those that cause dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, and Zika, for which the main vector is the Aedes aegypti mosquito. The use of repellents is an important way to combat mosquito-borne pathogens. In this work, a safe method of protection employing a repellent was developed based on a slow release system composed of zein nanoparticles containing the active agents icaridin and geraniol incorporated in a cellulose gel matrix. Analyses were performed to characterize the nanoparticles and the gel formulation. The nanoparticles containing the repellents presented a hydrodynamic diameter of 229 ± 9 nm, polydispersity index of 0.38 ± 0.10, and zeta potential of +29.4 ± 0.8 mV. The efficiencies of encapsulation in the zein nanoparticles exceeded 85% for icaridin and 98% for geraniol. Rheological characterization of the gels containing nanoparticles and repellents showed that the viscoelastic characteristic of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose gel was preserved. Release tests demonstrated that the use of nanoparticles in combination with the gel matrix led to improved performance of the formulations. Atomic force microscopy analyses enabled visualization of the gel network containing the nanoparticles. Cytotoxicity assays using 3T3 and HaCaT cell cultures showed low toxicity profiles for the active agents and the nanoparticles. The results demonstrated the potential of these repellent systems to provide prolonged protection while decreasing toxicity.

Nanodelivery Strategies for Skin Diseases with Barrier Impairment: Focusing on Ceramides and Glucocorticoids

The human epidermis has a characteristic lipidic composition in the stratum corneum, where ceramides play a crucial role in the skin barrier homeostasis and in water-holding capacity. Several skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis and psoriasis, exhibit a dysfunction in the lipid barrier with altered ceramide levels and increased loss of transepidermal water. Glucocorticoids are normally employed in the therapeutical management of these pathologies. However, they have shown a poor safety profile and reduced treatment efficiency. The main objective of this review is to, within the framework of the limitations of the currently available therapeutical approaches, establish the relevance of nanocarriers as a safe and efficient delivery strategy for glucocorticoids and ceramides in the topical treatment of skin disorders with barrier impairment.

Development and In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation of pH-Sensitive Polymeric Nanoparticles Loaded Hydrogel for the Management of Psoriasis

Methotrexate (MTX), the gold standard against psoriasis, poses severe problems when administered systemically viz increased toxicity, poor solubility and adverse reactions. Hence, a topical formulation of MTX for the management of psoriasis can be an effective approach. The present study aimed to develop an MTX based nanoparticle-loaded chitosan hydrogel for evaluating its potential efficacy in an imiquimod-induced psoriatic mice model. MTX-NPs loaded hydrogel was prepared and optimized using the o/w emulsion solvent evaporation method. Particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, in vitro drug release, ex vivo permeation, skin irritation and deposition studies were performed. Psoriatic Area and Severity Index (PASI) score/histopathological examinations were conducted to check the antipsoriatic potential of MTX-NPs loaded hydrogel using an imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriatic model. Optimized MTX-NPs showed a particle size of 256.4 ± 2.17 nm and encapsulation efficiency of 86 ± 0.03%. MTX-NPs loaded hydrogel displayed a 73 ± 1.21% sustained drug release in 48 h. Ex vivo permeation study showed only 19.95 ± 1.04 µg/cm2 of drug permeated though skin in 24 h, while epidermis retained 81.33% of the drug. A significant decrease in PASI score with improvement to normalcy of mice skin was observed. The developed MTX-NPs hydrogel displayed negligible signs of mild hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis, while histopathological studies showed healing signs of mice skin. So, the MTX-NPs loaded hydrogel can be a promising delivery system against psoriasis.

Cellulosic Polymers for Enhancing Drug Bioavailability in Ocular Drug Delivery Systems

One of the major impediments to drug development is low aqueous solubility and thus poor bioavailability, which leads to insufficient clinical utility. Around 70–80% of drugs in the discovery pipeline are suffering from poor aqueous solubility and poor bioavailability, which is a major challenge when one has to develop an ocular drug delivery system. The outer lipid layer, pre-corneal, dynamic, and static ocular barriers limit drug availability to the targeted ocular tissues. Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) class II drugs with adequate permeability and limited or no aqueous solubility have been extensively studied for various polymer-based solubility enhancement approaches. The hydrophilic nature of cellulosic polymers and their tunable properties make them the polymers of choice in various solubility-enhancement techniques. This review focuses on various cellulose derivatives, specifically, their role, current status and novel modified cellulosic polymers for enhancing the bioavailability of BCS class II drugs in ocular drug delivery systems.

Ferulic acid-loaded nanocapsules: Evaluation of mucosal interaction, safety and antioxidant activity in human mononucleated cells

Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic compound that has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties besides presenting cytoprotective activity. It has limited oral bioavailability what is a challenge to its therapeutic application. In this way, this investigation aimed to develop FA-loaded nanocapsule suspensions (NC-FA) prepared with ethylcellulose and evaluate their in vitro release profile, mucoadhesion and irritation potential; scavenging capacity, cytotoxicity, cytoprotection and genoprotection against hydrogen peroxide-induced damage in hMNC (human Mononucleated Cells) culture. The nanocapsules presented physicochemical characteristics compatible with colloidal systems (NC-FA: 112 ± 3 nm; NC-B (without FA): 107 ± 3 nm; PdI < 0.2; Span<2.0 and negative zeta potential). In addition, the nanoparticulate system promoted the FA controlled release, increasing the half-life twice through the in vitro dialysis method. NC-FA and NC-B were able to interact with mucin, which is an indicative of mucoadhesive properties and the association of FA with nanocapsules showed decreased irritation by HET-CAM method. Besides, the NC-FA did not present cytotoxicity in hMNC and improved the ATBS radical scavenging capacity. Besides, it prevented, treated and reversed oxidative conditions in a H₂O₂-induced model in hMNC. Thus, this nanocarrier formulation is promising to perform more preclinical investigations focusing on diseases involving oxidative mechanisms.

Nanoencapsulation of Hirudo medicinalis proteins in liposomes as a nanocarrier for inhibiting angiogenesis through targeting VEGFA in the Breast cancer cell line (MCF-7)

Introduction: Breast cancer is the most serious cause of women’s death throughout the world. Using nanocarrier vehicles to the exact site of cancer upgrades the therapeutic efficiency of the drugs. Capsulation of active proteins in the vesicular liposomes’ hydrophilic core is essential to develop a therapeutic protein carrier system. We aimed to encapsulate the medicinal leech saliva extract (LSE) and assess the inhibition of angiogenesis of breast cancer cells by targeting vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). Methods: In this research, enhanced formulation of liposomal protein was determined by zeta potential analysis, droplet size, drug release assay, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Furthermore, a cytotoxicity assay of liposomal LSE was performed to determine the cytotoxic activity of components. For assessing the expression of VEGFA, P53, and hypoxia-inducible factor subunit alpha (HIF1a) genes, Real-Time PCR was applied. Results: Nano liposome was chosen as an enhanced formulation due to its much smaller size (46.23 nm). Liposomal LSE had more practical actions on the MCF-7 cells. As noticed by DAPI staining, apoptosis was extensively greater in treated MCF-7 cells. Wound healing assay demonstrated that MCF-7 cells could not sustain growth at the presence of liposomal LSE and expression of the VEGFA gene was declined in treated cells. Downregulation of VEGFA was evaluated with western blotting technique. Conclusion: It can be concluded that our investigation of the tests confirmed the fact that nano liposomal LSE is a novel promising formulation for anticancer drugs and can significantly improve the penetration of protein drugs to cancer cells.

An Overview of the Antimicrobial Activity of Polymeric Nanoparticles Against Enterobacteriaceae

Bacterial resistance is considered one of the most important public health problems of the century, due to the ability of bacteria to rapidly develop resistance mechanisms, which makes it difficult to treat infections, leading to a high rate of morbidity and mortality. Based on this, several options are being sought as an alternative to currently available treatments, with a particular focus on nanotechnology. Nanomaterials have important potential for use in medical interventions aimed at preventing, diagnosing and treating numerous diseases by directing the delivery of drugs. This review presents data on the use of polymeric nanoparticles having in vitro and in vivo activity against bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family.

Nanotechnology-based Drug Delivery Systems as Potential for Skin Application: A Review

Administration of substances through the skin represents a promising alternative, in relation to other drug administration routes, due to its large body surface area, in order to offer ideal and multiple sites for drug administration. In addition, the administration of drugs through the skin avoids the first-pass metabolism, allowing an increase in the bioavailability of drugs, as well as reducing their side effects. However, the stratum corneum (SC) comprises the main barrier of protection against external agents, mainly due to its structure, composition and physicochemical properties, becoming the main limitation for the administration of substances through the skin. In view of the above, pharmaceutical technology has allowed the development of multiple drug delivery systems (DDS), which include liquid crystals (LC), cubosomes, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles (PNP), nanoemulsions (NE), as well as cyclodextrins (CD) and dendrimers (DND). It appears that the DDS circumvents the problems of drug absorption through the SC layer of the skin, ensuring the release of the drug, as well as optimizing the therapeutic effect locally. This review aims to highlight the DDS that include LC, cubosomes, lipid systems, PNP, as well as CD and DND, to optimize topical skin therapies.

Formulation of drug-loaded oligodepsipeptide particles with submicron size

The size of particulate carriers is key to their transport and distribution in biological systems, and needs to be tailored in the higher submicron range to enable follicular uptake for dermal treatment. Oligodepsipeptides are promising nanoparticulate carrier systems as they can be designed to exhibit enhanced interaction with drug molecules. Here, a fabrication scheme for drug-loaded submicron particles from oligo[3-(S)-sec-butylmorpholine-2,5-dione]diol (OBMD) is presented based on an emulsion solvent evaporation method with cosolvent, surfactant, and polymer concentration as variable process parameters. The particle size (300-950 nm) increased with lower surfactant concentration and higher oligomer concentration. The addition of acetone increased the particle size at low surfactant concentration. Particle size remained stable upon the encapsulation of models compounds dexamethasone (DXM) and Nile red (NR), having different physicochemical properties. DXM was released faster compared to NR due to its higher water solubility. Overall, the results indicated that both drug-loading and size control of OBMD submicron particles can be achieved. When applied on porcine ear skin samples, the NR-loaded particles have been shown to allow NR penetration into the hair follicle and the depth reached with the 300 nm particles was comparable to the one reached with the cream formulation. A potential benefit of the particles compared to a cream is their sustained release profile.

Dexamethasone-Loaded Lipomers: Development, Characterization, and Skin Biodistribution Studies

Follicular targeting has gained more attention in recent decades, due to the possibility of obtaining a depot effect in topical administration and its potential as a tool to treat hair follicle-related diseases. Lipid core ethyl cellulose lipomers were developed and optimized, following which characterization of their physicochemical properties was carried out. Dexamethasone was encapsulated in the lipomers (size, 115 nm; polydispersity, 0.24; zeta-potential (Z-potential), +30 mV) and their in vitro release profiles against dexamethasone in solution were investigated by vertical diffusion Franz cells. The skin biodistribution of the fluorescent-loaded lipomers was observed using confocal microscopy, demonstrating the accumulation of both lipomers and fluorochromes in the hair follicles of pig skin. To confirm this fact, immunofluorescence of the dexamethasone-loaded lipomers was carried out in pig hair follicles. The anti-inflammatory (via TNFα) efficacy of the dexamethasone-loaded lipomers was demonstrated in vitro in an HEK001 human keratinocytes cell culture and the in vitro cytotoxicity of the nanoformulation was investigated.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Dermal and Transdermal Applications

The stratum corneum, the most superficial layer of the skin, protects the body against environmental hazards and presents a highly selective barrier for the passage of drugs and cosmetic products deeper into the skin and across the skin. Nanomaterials can effectively increase the permeation of active molecules across the stratum corneum and enable their penetration into deeper skin layers, often by interacting with the skin and creating the distinct sites with elevated local concentration, acting as reservoirs. The flux of the molecules from these reservoirs can be either limited to the underlying skin layers (for topical drug and cosmeceutical delivery) or extended across all the sublayers of the epidermis to the blood vessels of the dermis (for transdermal delivery). The type of the nanocarrier and the physicochemical nature of the active substance are among the factors that determine the final skin permeation pattern and the stability of the penetrant in the cutaneous environment. The most widely employed types of nanomaterials for dermal and transdermal applications include solid lipid nanoparticles, nanovesicular carriers, microemulsions, nanoemulsions, and polymeric nanoparticles. The recent advances in the area of nanomaterial-assisted dermal and transdermal delivery are highlighted in this review.

Ethylcellulose nanoparticles prepared from nano-emulsion templates as new folate binding haemocompatible platforms

Ethylcellulose is a biocompatible polymer attracting increasing interest for biomedical applications. In the present work, the formation of folate-ethylcellulose nanoparticle complexes from nano-emulsion templates prepared by a low-energy approach, using aqueous components suitable for biomedical applications has been investigated. The composition of the aqueous component is shown to be crucial for the formation of stable nano-emulsions and influences the zeta potential values. The ethylcellulose nanoparticles with mean sizes around 100 nm were obtained from the nano-emulsions by solvent evaporation and showed positive zeta potential values above +20 mV due to the presence of the cationic surfactant. The nanoparticles were successfully complexed with folate, as evidenced by both particle size and zeta potential measurements. The complexes prepared with HEPES buffered glucose solution showed excellent haemocompatibility, which make them promising for parenteral therapeutic applications and also for those in which easy access to systemic circulation may occur, like in lungs.

Development of a nanotechnological-based hydrogel containing a novel benzofuroazepine compound in association with vitamin E: An in vitro biological safety and photoprotective hydrogel

This study aimed to evaluate the potential DNA photoprotection of nano-based hydrogels containing a novel benzofuroazepine molecule. Photoprotective property of three benzofuroazepine derivative compounds was assessed by determining a UV light absorptive profile. Nanocapsule suspensions (Eudragit® RS 100 as polymeric wall and medium-chain triglyceride or vitamin E as oil core) containing the benzofuroazepine compound that had the best UV spectral absorption were developed and physicochemically characterized. Photostability assay, bioadhesive property as well as preliminary toxicity parameters (HET-CAM and Artemia salina lethality assays) for free or nanoencapsulated forms were assessed. Among the molecules, the UV absorbance spectrum of free MBBA showed a broad and high intensity absorbance at UVB and UVA ranges. MBBA-nanocapsule suspensions had nanometric and homogeneous size distribution, bioadhesiveness property, and increased the UV light scattering in comparison to the free compound. Besides, all formulations triggered no irritative responses and the nanoencapsulation mitigated the toxic effect to Artemia salina observed to free MBBA. Following, hydrogels were prepared by thickening nanocapsule suspensions with gellan gum and their DNA photoprotection properties were determined by the exposure of DNA samples to the UVB and UVA radiation. Hydrogels showed acid pH values, compound content close to the theoretical value (3 mg/g), particle size in nanometric range, and spreadability profile suitable for cutaneous application. All MBBA hydrogels were effective against photoproducts formation induced by UVB and UVA radiation. In conclusion, these data show the identification of a compound with promising UV absorptive potential and the preparation of a final nano-based hydrogel for cutaneous application.

Emerging nanobiotechnology in agriculture for the management of pesticide residues

Utilization of pesticides is often necessary for meeting commercial requirements for crop quality and yield. However, incessant global pesticide use poses potential risks to human and ecosystem health. This situation increases the urgency of developing nano-biotechnology-assisted pesticide formulations that have high efficacy and low risk of side effects. The risks associated with both conventional and nanopesticides are summarized in this review. Moreover, the management of residual pesticides is still a global challenge. The contamination of soil and water resources with pesticides has adverse impact over agricultural productivity and food security; ultimately posing threats to living organisms. Pesticide residues in the eco-system may be treated via several biological and physicochemical processes, such as microbe-based degradation and advanced oxidation processes. With these issues in mind, we present a review that explores both existing and emerging techniques for management of pesticide residues and environmental risks. These techniques can offer a sustainable solution to revitalize the tarnished water/soil resources. Further, state-of-the-art research approaches to investigate biotechnological alternatives to conventional pesticides are discussed along with future prospects and mitigation techniques are recommended.

Potential of Nanoparticles as Permeation Enhancers and Targeted Delivery Options for Skin: Advantages and Disadvantages

The topical route of administration has many advantages for the treatment of various skin disorders as well as cosmeceutical purposes. This route bypasses hepatic first-pass effect and systemic availability of many pharmaceuticals is limited to skin organelles such as hair follicles and so could avoid unwanted adverse reactions and increase the localized therapeutic effect. Despite such attributed advantages of the topical route, the most important challenge is skin barrier characteristics that should be overcome to obtain dermal or trans-dermal drug delivery. Different approaches have been recruited to overcome this barrier. In this review, different types of nanoparticles for skin permeation enhancement and targeted delivery to skin organelles are discussed. The potential mechanisms of each nanocarrier in permeation enhancement and dermal delivery are considered and finally, the most important advantages and disadvantages of each group are summarized.

Evolution of Nanotechnology in Delivering Drugs to Eyes, Skin and Wounds via Topical Route

The topical route is the most preferred one for administering drugs to eyes, skin and wounds for reaching enhanced efficacy and to improve patient compliance. Topical administration of drugs via conventional dosage forms such as solutions, creams and so forth to the eyes is associated with very low bioavailability (less than 5%) and hence, we cannot rely on these for delivering drugs to eyes more efficiently. An intravitreal injection is another popular drug delivery regime but is associated with complications like intravitreal hemorrhage, retinal detachment, endophthalmitis, and cataracts. The skin has a complex structure that serves as numerous physiological barriers to the entry of exogenous substances. Drug localization is an important aspect of some dermal diseases and requires directed delivery of the active substance to the diseased cells, which is challenging with current approaches. Existing therapies used for wound healing are costly, and they involve long-lasting treatments with 70% chance of recurrence of ulcers. Nanotechnology is a novel and highly potential technology for designing formulations that would improve the efficiency of delivering drugs via the topical route. This review involves a discussion about how nanotechnology-driven drug delivery systems have evolved, and their potential in overcoming the natural barriers for delivering drugs to eyes, skin and wounds.

Natural Ergot Alkaloids in Ocular Pharmacotherapy: Known Molecules for Novel Nanoparticle-Based Delivery Systems

Several pharmacological properties are attributed to ergot alkaloids as a result of their antibacterial, antiproliferative, and antioxidant effects. Although known for their biomedical applications (e.g., for the treatment of glaucoma), most ergot alkaloids exhibit high toxicological risk and may even be lethal to humans and animals. Their pharmacological profile results from the structural similarity between lysergic acid-derived compounds and noradrenalin, dopamine, and serotonin neurotransmitters. To reduce their toxicological risk, while increasing their bioavailability, improved delivery systems were proposed. This review discusses the safety aspects of using ergot alkaloids in ocular pharmacology and proposes the development of lipid and polymeric nanoparticles for the topical administration of these drugs to enhance their therapeutic efficacy for the treatment of glaucoma.

Recent Advances in the Design of Topical Ophthalmic Delivery Systems in the Treatment of Ocular Surface Inflammation and Their Biopharmaceutical Evaluation

Ocular inflammation is one of the most common symptom of eye disorders and diseases. The therapeutic management of this inflammation must be rapid and effective in order to avoid deleterious effects for the eye and the vision. Steroidal (SAID) and non-steroidal (NSAID) anti-inflammatory drugs and immunosuppressive agents have been shown to be effective in treating inflammation of the ocular surface of the eye by topical administration. However, it is well established that the anatomical and physiological ocular barriers are limiting factors for drug penetration. In addition, such drugs are generally characterized by a very low aqueous solubility, resulting in low bioavailability as only 1% to 5% of the applied drug permeates the cornea. The present review gives an updated insight on the conventional formulations used in the treatment of ocular inflammation, i.e., ointments, eye drops, solutions, suspensions, gels, and emulsions, based on the commercial products available on the US, European, and French markets. Additionally, sophisticated formulations and innovative ocular drug delivery systems will be discussed. Promising results are presented with micro- and nanoparticulated systems, or combined strategies with polymers and colloidal systems, which offer a synergy in bioavailability and sustained release. Finally, different tools allowing the physical characterization of all these delivery systems, as well as in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo evaluations, will be considered with regards to the safety, the tolerance, and the efficiency of the drug products.

Nanoparticles Based on Hydrophobic Polysaccharide Derivatives-Formation Principles, Characterization Techniques, and Biomedical Applications

Polysaccharide (PS) nanoparticles (NP) are fascinating materials that combine huge application potential with the unique beneficial features of natural biopolymers. Different types of PS-NP can be distinguished depending on the basic preparation principles (top-down vs bottom-up vs coating of nanomaterials) and the material from which they are obtained (native PS vs chemically modified PS derivatives vs nanocomposites). This review provides a comprehensive overview of an approach towards PS-NP that has gained rapidly increasing interest within the last decade; the nanoself-assembling of hydrophobic PS derivatives. This facile process is easy to perform and offers a broad structural diversity in terms of the PS backbone and the additional functionalities that can be introduced. Fundamental principles of different NP preparation techniques along with useful characterization methods are presented in this work. A comprehensive summary of PS-NP prepared by different techniques and with various PS backbones and types/amounts of hydrophobic substituents is given. The intention is to demonstrate how different parameters determine the size, size distribution, and zeta-potential of the particles. Moreover, application trends in biomedical areas are highlighted in which tailored functional PS-NP are evaluated and constantly developed further.

Design strategies for programmable oligonucleotide nanotherapeutics

A systematic review on how to design different programmable nanotherapeutics using oligonucleotides as building blocks or as surface and matrix modifiers for controlled and targeted delivery of various therapeutic agents in presented.

Premium ethylcellulose polymer based architectures at work in drug delivery

Premium ethylcellulose polymers are hydrophobic cellulose ether based biomaterials widely employed as biocompatible templates for the design of novel drug delivery systems. They are classified as United States Food and Drug Administration Generally-Recognized-As-Safe chemical substances and have been extensively utilized within the biomedical and pharmaceutical industries for over half a century. They have so far demonstrated the potential to modulate and improve the physiological performance of bioactives leading to the desired enhanced prophylactic and therapeutic outcomes. This review therefore presents a scholarly survey of inter-disciplinary developments focused on the functionalities of ethylcellulose polymers as biomaterials useful for the design of smart delivery architectures for relevant pharmacotherapeutic biomedical applications. Emphasis was placed on evaluating scientific resources related to recent advancements and future directions associated with its applications as delivery systems for drugs and biologics within the past decade thus complementing other specialized reviews showcasing the theme.

Ethylcellulose-A Pharmaceutical Excipient with Multidirectional Application in Drug Dosage Forms Development

Polymers constitute the most important group of excipients utilized in modern pharmaceutical technology, playing an essential role in the development of drug dosage forms. Synthetic, semisynthetic, and natural polymeric materials offer opportunities to overcome different formulative challenges and to design novel dosage forms for controlled release or for site-specific drug delivery. They are extensively used to design therapeutic systems, modify drug release, or mask unpleasant drug taste. Cellulose derivatives are characterized by different physicochemical properties, such as swellability, viscosity, biodegradability, pH dependency, or mucoadhesion, which determine their use in industry. One cellulose derivative with widespread application is ethylcellulose. Ethylcellulose is used in pharmaceutical technology as a coating agent, flavoring fixative, binder, filler, film-former, drug carrier, or stabilizer. The aim of this article is to provide a broad overview of ethylcellulose utilization for pharmaceutical purposes, with particular emphasis on its multidirectional role in the development of oral and topical drug dosage forms.

Oral delivery of imatinib through galactosylated polymeric nanoparticles to explore the contribution of a saccharide ligand to absorption

Imatinib (IMT) is a selective tyrosine kinase inhibitor clinically used for treating chronic myeloid leukemia and malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumors. However, oral administration of IMT is challenged by its high oral dose, low intestinal solubility and adverse reactions. This work aimed to investigate the effect of galactose ligand on polymeric nanoparticles-facilitated oral absorption of IMT. N-oleoyl-D-galactosamine was synthesized for fabricating biomimetic galactose-modified nanoparticles (GNPs) in an attempt to improve the oral bioavailability of IMT. IMT-loaded GNPs (IMT-GNPs) were prepared using a solvent diffusion technique and characterized by particle size, morphology, and entrapment efficiency (EE). The in vitro release and in vivo oral bioavailability of IMT-GNPs were comparatively studied with bulk IMT and IMT-loaded nanoparticles (IMT-NPs), respectively. The resultant IMT-GNPs were 122.0 nm around in particle size with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.201. IMT-GNPs possessed a high EE (93.06%) and exhibited a sustained effect on drug release. After oral administration, IMT-GNPs significantly enhanced the oral bioavailability of IMT, up to 152.3% relative to IMT suspensions, whereas IMT-NPs merely resulted in an increase to 115.2%. Cellular uptake and ex vivo intestinal transport imaging demonstrated that GNPs were armed with higher cellular affinity and intestinal epithelial permeability compared with galactose-free IMT-NPs. These results provide solid evidence that galactose modification has great potential to ulteriorly promote the oral absorption of IMT on the base of nanoparticles, which may be conducive to achieve the synergy and attenuation of IMT.

Qualifying X-ray and Stimulated Raman Spectromicroscopy for Mapping Cutaneous Drug Penetration

Research on topical drug delivery relies on reconstructed human skin (RHS) in addition to ex vivo human and animal skin, each with specific physiological features. Here, we compared the penetration of dexamethasone from an ethanolic hydroxyethyl cellulose gel into ex vivo human skin, murine skin, and RHS. For comprehensive insights into skin morphology and penetration enhancing mechanisms, scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM), liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and stimulated Raman spectromicroscopy (SRS) were combined. STXM offers high spatial resolution with label-free drug detection and is therefore sensitive to tissue damage. Despite differences in sample preparation and data analysis, the amounts of dexamethasone in RHS, detected and quantified by STXM and LC-MS/MS, were very similar and increased during the first 100 min of exposure. SRS revealed interactions between the gel and the stratum corneum or, more specifically, its protein and lipid structures. Similar to both types of ex vivo skin, higher protein-to-lipid ratios within the stratum corneum of RHS indicated reduced lipid amounts after 30 min of ethanol exposure. Extended ethanol exposure led to a continued reduction of lipids in the ex vivo matrixes, while protein integrity appeared to be compromised in RHS, which led to declining protein signals. In conclusion, LC-MS/MS proved the predictive capability of STXM for label-free drug detection. Combining STXM with SRS precisely dissected the penetration enhancing effects of ethanol. Further studies on topical drug delivery should consider the potential of these complementary techniques.

Drug delivery systems and novel formulations to improve treatment of rare corneal disease

As the field of ocular drug delivery grows so does the potential for novel drug discovery or reformulation in lesser-known diseases of the eye. In particular, rare corneal diseases are an interesting area of research because drug delivery is limited to the outermost tissue of the eye. This review will highlight the opportunities and challenges of drug reformulation and alternative treatment approaches for rare corneal diseases. The barriers to effective drug delivery and proposed solutions in development will be discussed along with an overview of corneal rare disease resources, their current treatments and ophthalmic drug delivery systems that could benefit such cases. The regulatory considerations for effective translation of orphan-designated products will also be discussed.

Subtle and unexpected role of PEG in tuning the penetration mechanisms of PLA-based nano-formulations into intact and impaired skin

We present a systematic study of the role of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) content in NPs on drug skin absorption. Cholecalciferol-loaded NPs of 100 nm of diameter were prepared by flash nanoprecipitation from PLA-b-PEG copolymers of various PEG lengths. As PEG content increased in the polymer, we observed a transition from a frozen solid particle structure to a more dynamic particle structure. Skin absorption studies showed that polymer composition influenced drug penetration depending on skin condition (intact or impaired). In intact skin, highly PEGylated NPs achieved the best skin absorption, even if the penetration differences between the NPs were low. In impaired skin, on the contrary, non-PEGylated NPs (PLA NPs) promoted a strong drug deposition. Further investigations revealed that the strong drug accumulation from PLA NPs in impaired skin was mediated by aggregation and sedimentation of NPs due to the release of charged species from the skin. In contrast, the dynamic structure of highly PEGylated NPs promoted wetting of the surface and interactions with skin lipids, improving drug absorption in intact skin. Since NPs structure and surface properties determine the drug penetration mechanisms at the NP-skin interface, this work highlights the importance of properly tuning NPs composition according to skin physiopathology.

In-situ forming gels containing fluorometholone-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for ocular inflammatory conditions

Thermosensitive gels have been developed and optimized in such a way that they become gels at corneal temperature and with a viscosity that allows the adequate release of the Fluorometholone (FMT)-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) in order to improve ocular anti-inflammatory efficacy against a commercial formulation. It has been shown that gels avoid burst release of the drug in the first hours with a slow and increasing profile after administration. NPs have maintained their average size and spherical shape within the gels as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In turn, the in-situ gelling of the formulations allows the administration in eye drops dosage form due to its state of sol at temperatures below 25 °C. Ocular tolerance studies have shown that no formulation causes eye irritation. The administration of the developed formulations has improved the precorneal residence time reflected in the ocular bioavailability, where deep tissues as aqueous humour and crystalline were reached. In conclusion, the use of thermosensitive gels for the topical application of NPs has demonstrated their effectiveness in the acute and preventive treatment of ocular inflammatory conditions.