Surface modification of solid lipid nanoparticles for oral delivery of curcumin: Improvement of bioavailability through enhanced cellular uptake, and lymphatic uptake

Harnessing unique architecture and emerging strategies of solid lipid nanoparticles to combat colon cancer: A state-of-the-art review

Cancer is a serious worldwide public health problem, ranking as the second leading cause of death in the United States. The third most prevalent tumor kind in the world is a colon or rectal tumor. Colon Cancer (CC) is the third most common cancer worldwide and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally. In the US, CC has become the 2nd most common cause of death after having different advancements like detection, surgery, and chemotherapy. The current strategies for treating colon cancer have several disadvantages, including higher toxicity, drug resistance, damage to healthy cells, solubility, specificity, a lower therapeutic index, and more. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are a viable targeted treatment option for colon cancer to avoid this problem. This comprehensive review discussed the severity, pathophysiology, risk factors, and stages of colon cancer. The review covers the most effective colon cancer therapy and diagnostic procedures, including HSgFOBT, Fecal immunological test (FIT), Colonoscopy, FIT-DNA Test/mt-sDNA screening test, Colon capsule (CCE), Blood-based DNA Tests, and Flexible sigmoidoscopy. This reviewemphasizes the need for novel and specific approaches to colon cancer treatment to improve patient outcomes.

Targeting Neuroinflammation in Central Nervous System Diseases by Oral Delivery of Lipid Nanoparticles

Neuroinflammation within the central nervous system (CNS) is a primary characteristic of CNS diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and mental disorders. The excessive activation of immune cells results in the massive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which subsequently induce neuronal death and accelerate the progression of neurodegeneration. Therefore, mitigating excessive neuroinflammation has emerged as a promising strategy for the treatment of CNS diseases. Despite advancements in drug discovery and the development of novel therapeutics, the effective delivery of these agents to the CNS remains a serious challenge due to the restrictive nature of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This underscores the need to develop a novel drug delivery system. Recent studies have identified oral lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as a promising approach to efficiently deliver drugs across the BBB and treat neurological diseases. This review aims to comprehensively summarize the recent advancements in the development of LNPs designed for the controlled delivery and therapeutic modulation of CNS diseases through oral administration. Furthermore, this review addresses the mechanisms by which these LNPs overcome biological barriers and evaluate their clinical implications and therapeutic efficacy in the context of oral drug delivery systems. Specifically, it focuses on LNP formulations that facilitate oral administration, exploring their potential to enhance bioavailability, improve targeting precision, and alleviate or manage the symptoms associated with a range of CNS diseases.

Encapsulation of synthesized purpurin-18-N-aminoimide methyl ester in lipid nanovesicles for use as agents in photodynamic cancer therapy

This study aimed to synthesize purpurin-18-N-aminoimide methyl ester (P18 N AI ME) and encapsulate it into lipid nanovesicles (LNVs) for potential application as photodynamic therapy (PDT) agents in cancer therapy. PDT, a light-induced treatment, offers several advantages over conventional cancer treatments, such as minimal invasiveness and localized action. P18 N AI ME, a chlorine class photosensitizer model drug, was synthesized in an attempt to treat tumor in deeper tissues by interacting long-wavelength light. LNVs were introduced to improve anticancer effect and photostability of P18 N AI ME. LNVs using glycerol monostearate demonstrated smaller particle sizes and more sustained release profiles than those using lauric acid. In photocytotoxicity against HeLa (human cervical carcinoma) and A549 (human lung carcinoma) cell lines, P18 N AI ME-LNVs demonstrated safety under dark conditions and enhanced anticancer effects under light conditions compared to P18 N AI ME alone. The inhibitory concentration values (IC50) were 0.86 μM (P18 N AI ME) and 0.68 μM (LNVs) in HeLa cell line and 0.85 μM (P18 N AI ME) and 0.64 μM (LNVs) in A549 cell line. These findings suggest that P18 N AI ME-LNVs hold promise as PDT agents in cancer therapy.

Enhanced Anticancer Efficiency of Curcumin Co-Loaded Lawsone Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Against MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cell Lines: Optimization by Statistical JMP Software-Based Experimental Approach

The present study highlighted enhancing the therapeutic effectiveness of curcumin (CUR) co-loaded lawsone (LS) through a solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)-based delivery system. The cetyl palmitate (CP), polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG), and probe sonication time (PS) were considered as independent variables whereas particle size and % entrapment efficiency (EE) were selected as dependent variables. The CUR-LS-SLN was developed by hot emulsification followed by probe sonication. A 23 factorial design was utilized in formulation development using JMP software version 17. Notably, the particle size and %EE of all the formulations were about 500 nm and greater than 75%, respectively. The zeta potential value was found to be -46.8 mV. From leverage plots significant and sensitive factors on particle size and %EE were identified. Contour plots led to the identification of an optimized formula whereby maintaining CP at 100 mg, PEG 400 at 6 mL, and PS at 10 min the desired particle size and %EE was achieved. TEM studies indicated the spherical shape of the particles. MTT assays of Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) cells showed enhanced efficacy and greater cell inhibition of CUR-LS-SLN and combining both drugs using nanocarriers gave superior inhibition as compared with using either of the drugs evident from IC50 values of 3.7, 9.4, and 2.5 μM, respectively, for CUR, LS, and CUR-LS-SLN. The cells in the combination mostly had irregular cell walls and cell shrinkage was noted and greater cell reduction was also seen. It was found that the enhanced cytotoxicity effect of MCF-7 cells on the developed formulation was attributed to the drug's synergistic actions, more efficient nanocarrier internalizations, and sustained drug release from the formulation. Stability studies indicated that the optimized SLN was stable for 6 months.

The Dynamic Role of Curcumin in Mitigating Human Illnesses: Recent Advances in Therapeutic Applications

Herbal medicine, particularly in developing regions, remains highly popular due to its cost-effectiveness, accessibility, and minimal risk of adverse effects. Curcuma longa L., commonly known as turmeric, exemplifies such herbal remedies with its extensive history of culinary and medicinal applications across Asia for thousands of years. Traditionally utilized as a dye, flavoring, and in cultural rituals, turmeric has also been employed to treat a spectrum of medical conditions, including inflammatory, bacterial, and fungal infections, jaundice, tumors, and ulcers. Building on this longstanding use, contemporary biochemical and clinical research has identified curcumin-the primary active compound in turmeric-as possessing significant therapeutic potential. This review hypothesizes that curcumin's antioxidant properties are pivotal in preventing and treating chronic inflammatory diseases, which are often precursors to more severe conditions, such as cancer, and neurological disorders, like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, while curcumin demonstrates a favorable safety profile, its anticoagulant effects warrant cautious application. This article synthesizes recent studies to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying curcumin's actions and evaluates its therapeutic efficacy in various human illnesses, including cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, osteoarthritis, atherosclerosis, peptic ulcers, COVID-19, psoriasis, vitiligo, and depression. By integrating diverse research findings, this review aims to provide a comprehensive perspective on curcumin's role in modern medicine and its potential as a multifaceted therapeutic agent.

Preparation of curcumin-loaded chitosan/lecithin nanoparticles with increased anti-oxidant activity and in vivo bioavailability

As a natural polyphenol, curcumin (Cur) has exhibited a range of bioactive properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-infection properties. However, the chemical instability and low water solubility of Cur hinder its wide application. Herein, Cur-loaded chitosan/lecithin nanoparticles (CCL NPs) were prepared by the electrostatic self-assembly method. The prepared CCL NPs showed a small particle size (122.86 ± 1.53 nm) with homogeneous distribution (PDI = 0.17 ± 0.01). The high EE (79.34 ± 2.93 %) and LC (9.33 ± 0.34 %) indicated that most of Cur was encapsulated in CCL NPs. Meanwhile, the Cur was released from CCL NPs in a quick and sustained way after being exposed to simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The CCL NPs displayed superior anti-oxidant activity than that of free Cur. Moreover, the in vivo pharmacokinetic studies showed that the CCL NPs could lead to a ~ 2.64-fold increase in oral bioavailability compared with that of free Cur. All these findings indicated that the formation of CCL NPs would be a promising platform to deliver Cur in the food industry.

Intestinal Lymphatic Biology, Drug Delivery, and Therapeutics: Current Status and Future Directions

Historically, the intestinal lymphatics were considered passive conduits for fluids, immune cells, dietary lipids, lipid soluble vitamins, and lipophilic drugs. Studies of intestinal lymphatic drug delivery in the late 20th century focused primarily on the drugs' physicochemical properties, especially high lipophilicity, that resulted in intestinal lymphatic transport. More recent discoveries have changed our traditional view by demonstrating that the lymphatics are active, plastic, and tissue-specific players in a range of biological and pathological processes, including within the intestine. These findings have, in turn, inspired exploration of lymph-specific therapies for a range of diseases, as well as the development of more sophisticated strategies to actively deliver drugs or vaccines to the intestinal lymph, including a range of nanotechnologies, lipid prodrugs, and lipid-conjugated materials that "hitchhike" onto lymphatic transport pathways. With the increasing development of novel therapeutics such as biologics, there has been interest in whether these therapeutics are absorbed and transported through intestinal lymph after oral administration. Here we review the current state of understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal lymphatic system in health and disease, with a focus on aspects relevant to drug delivery. We summarize the current state-of-the-art approaches to deliver drugs and quantify their uptake into the intestinal lymphatic system. Finally, and excitingly, we discuss recent examples of significant pharmacokinetic and therapeutic benefits achieved via intestinal lymphatic drug delivery. We also propose approaches to advance the development and clinical application of intestinal lymphatic delivery strategies in the future. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This comprehensive review details the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the intestinal lymphatic system in health and disease, with a focus on aspects relevant to drug delivery. It highlights current state-of-the-art approaches to deliver drugs to the intestinal lymphatics and the shift toward the use of these strategies to achieve pharmacokinetic and therapeutic benefits for patients.

A Review: Surface Engineering of Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems

This review explores the evolution of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) for drug delivery (DD). Herein, LBNPs are classified into liposomes and cell membrane-based nanoparticles (CMNPs), each with unique advantages and challenges. Conventional LBNPs possess drawbacks such as poor targeting, quick clearance, and limited biocompatibility. One of the possible alternatives to overcome these challenges is surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with materials such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), aptamers, antibody fragments, peptides, CD44, hyaluronic acid, folic acid, palmitic acid, and lactoferrin. Thus, the main focus of this review will be on the different surface modifications that enable LBNPs to have beneficial properties for DD, such as enhancing mass transport properties, immune evasion, improved stability, and targeting. Moreover, various CMNPs are explored used for DD derived from cells such as red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, leukocytes, cancer cells, and stem cells, highlighting their unique natural properties (e.g., biocompatibility and ability to evade the immune system). This discussion extends to the biomimicking of hybrid NPs accomplished through the surface coating of synthetic (mainly polymeric) NPs with different cell membranes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive resource for researchers on recent advances in the field of surface modification of LBNPs and CMNPs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the dynamic field of lipid-based DD systems.

Enteral Route Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy

With the in-depth knowledge of the pathological and physiological characteristics of the intestinal barrier-portal vein/intestinal lymphatic vessels-systemic circulation axis, oral targeted drug delivery is frequently being renewed. With many advantages, such as high safety, convenient administration, and good patient compliance, many researchers have begun to explore targeted drug delivery from intravenous injections to oral administration. Over the past few decades, the fields of materials science and nanomedicine have produced various drug delivery platforms that hold great potential in overcoming the multiple barriers associated with oral drug delivery. However, the oral transport of particles into the systemic circulation is extremely difficult due to immune rejection and biochemical invasion in the intestine, which limits absorption and entry into the bloodstream. The feasibility of the oral delivery of targeted drugs to sites outside the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is unknown. This article reviews the biological barriers to drug absorption, the in vivo fate and transport mechanisms of drug carriers, the theoretical basis for oral administration, and the impact of carrier structural evolution on oral administration to achieve this goal. Finally, this article reviews the characteristics of different nano-delivery systems that can enhance the bioavailability of oral therapeutics and highlights their applications in the efficient creation of oral anticancer nanomedicines.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Pulmonary Delivery of Biopharmaceuticals: A Review of Opportunities, Challenges, and Delivery Applications

Biopharmaceuticals such as nucleic acids, proteins, and peptides constitute a new array of treatment modalities for chronic ailments. Invasive routes remain the mainstay of administering biopharmaceuticals due to their labile nature in the biological environment. However, it is not preferred for long-term therapy due to the lack of patient adherence and clinical suitability. Therefore, alternative routes of administration are sought to utilize novel biopharmaceutical therapies to their utmost potential. Nanoparticle-mediated pulmonary delivery of biologics can facilitate both local and systemic disorders. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) afford many opportunities as pulmonary carriers due to their physicochemical stability and ability to incorporate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties, thus allowing novel combinatorial drug/gene therapies. These applications include pulmonary infections, lung cancer, and cystic fibrosis, while systemic delivery of biomolecules, like insulin, is also attractive for the treatment of chronic ailments. This Review explores physiological and particle-associated factors affecting pulmonary delivery of biopharmaceuticals. It compares the advantages and limitations of SLNs as pulmonary nanocarriers along with design improvements underway to overcome these limitations. Current research illustrating various SLN designs to deliver proteins, peptides, plasmids, oligonucleotides, siRNA, and mRNA is also summarized.

Enhanced bioavailability of curcumin amorphous nanocomposite prepared by a green process using modified starch

Curcumin (Cur), a bioactive compound extracted from plants, has attracted widespread attention due to its multiple pharmacological activities. However, the low bioavailability due to the inherent limitations in water solubility, chemical stability, and permeability poses great challenges for realizing its clinical potentials. In the current study, octenyl succinic anhydride-modified starch (OSA-S), a renewable and biodegradable biopolymer, was employed to fabricate Cur amorphous composite nanoparticles (Cur/OSA-S NPs) through a solvent-free pH-driven method with the aim to enhance Cur's bioavailability by improving its solubility and stability. Cur/OSA-S NPs, with mean sizes of about 128.9 ± 8.6 nm, encapsulation efficiencies of about 90.0 %, and the drug loading capacities around 51.0 ± 0.2 %, were successfully prepared. Cur was found to be dispersed within the composite nanoparticles in amorphous state as confirmed by the XRD and DSC characterizations. In addition, Cur/OSA-S NPs offers excellent storage, thermal and light stability, excellent re-dispersibility, and approximately 92 times better solubility than the original Cur. Furthermore, studies of dissolution and the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) confirmed enhanced dissolution rates and in vitro permeabilities of Cur/OSA-S NPs. Cancer cell viability and uptake experiments revealed that Cur/OSA-S NPs possessed more potent inhibitory effects on cancer cell proliferation compared to the raw Cur. The results obtained from the current study demonstrated the effectiveness of OSA-S for manufacturing Cur amorphous composite nanoparticles with enhanced solubility, stability, and permeability, which might be valuable for further development of Cur based products for treatment of various diseases.

Revolutionizing transdermal drug delivery: unveiling the potential of cubosomes and ethosomes

The area of drug delivery systems has witnessed significant advancements in recent years, with a particular focus on improving efficacy, stability, and patient compliance. Transdermal drug delivery offers numerous benefits compared to conventional methods of drug administration through the skin. It helps in avoiding gastric irritation, hepatic first-pass metabolism, and gastric degradation of the drug. It bypasses the gastrointestinal tract, eliminating the risk of first-pass metabolism and allowing drugs to be administered without being affected by pH, enzymes, or intestinal bacteria. Additionally, it allows for sustained release of the drug, is noninvasive, and enhances patient adherence to the treatment regimen. The transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) can serve as an alternative route for drug administration in individuals who cannot tolerate oral medications, experience nausea, or are unconscious. When compared to intravenous, hypodermic, and other parenteral routes, TDDS stands out due to its ability to eliminate pain, reduce the risk of infection, and prevent disease transmission associated with needle reuse. Consequently, the overall patient compliance is significantly improved with the utilization of TDDS. Among the noteworthy developments are cubosomes and ethosomes, two distinct yet promising carriers that have garnered attention for their unique properties. In conclusion, this review synthesizes the current knowledge on cubosomes and ethosomes, shedding light on their individual strengths and potential synergies. The exploration of their application in various therapeutic areas underscores their versatility and establishes them as key players in the evolving landscape of drug delivery systems.

Nanoparticles Targeting Lymph Nodes for Cancer Immunotherapy: Strategies and Influencing Factors

Immunotherapy has emerged as a potent strategy in cancer treatment, with many approved drugs and modalities in the development stages. Despite its promise, immunotherapy is not without its limitations, including side effects and suboptimal efficacy. Using nanoparticles (NPs) as delivery vehicles to target immunotherapy to lymph nodes (LNs) can improve the efficacy of immunotherapy drugs and reduce side effects in patients. In this context, this paper reviews the development of LN-targeted immunotherapeutic NP strategies, the mechanisms of NP transport during LN targeting, and their related biosafety risks. NP targeting of LNs involves either passive targeting, influenced by NP physical properties, or active targeting, facilitated by affinity ligands on NP surfaces, while alternative methods, such as intranodal injection and high endothelial venule (HEV) targeting, have uncertain clinical applicability and require further research and validation. LN targeting of NPs for immunotherapy can reduce side effects and increase biocompatibility, but risks such as toxicity, organ accumulation, and oxidative stress remain, although strategies such as biodegradable biomacromolecules, polyethylene glycol (PEG) coating, and impurity addition can mitigate these risks. Additionally, this work concludes with a future-oriented discussion, offering critical insights into the field.

An Overview of the Spices Used for the Prevention and Potential Treatment of Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) ranks third in terms of cancer-related deaths and is the fifth most commonly diagnosed type of cancer. Its risk factors include Helicobacter pylori infection, Epstein-Barr virus infection, the consumption of broiled and charbroiled animal meats, salt-preserved and smoke-enhanced foods, alcohol drinking, tobacco smoking, exposure to ionizing radiation, and positive family history. The limited effectiveness of conventional therapies and the widespread risk factors of GC encourage the search for new methods of treatment and prevention. In the quest for cheap and commonly available medications, numerous studies focus on herbal medicine, traditional brews, and spices. In this review, we outline the potential use of spices, including turmeric, ginger, garlic, black cumin, chili pepper, saffron, black pepper, rosemary, galangal, coriander, wasabi, cinnamon, oregano, cardamom, fenugreek, caraway, clove, dill, thyme, Piper sarmentosum, basil, as well as the compounds they contain, in the prevention and treatment of GC. We present the potential molecular mechanisms responsible for the effectivity of a given seasoning substance and their impact on GC cells. We discuss their potential effects on proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. For most of the spices discussed, we also outline the unavailability and side effects of their use.

Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Biomedical Applications, Current Challenges, and Future Perspectives

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano to-micrometer-sized sacs that are released by almost all animal and plant cells and act as intercellular communicators by transferring their cargos between the source and target cells. As a safe and scalable alternative to conditioned medium-derived EVs, milk-derived EVs (miEVs) have recently gained a great deal of popularity. Numerous studies have shown that miEVs have intrinsic therapeutic actions that can treat diseases and enhance human health. Additionally, they can be used as natural drug carriers and novel classes of biomarkers. However, due to the complexity of the milk, the successful translation of miEVs from benchtop to bedside still faces several unfilled gaps, especially a lack of standardized protocols for the isolation of high-purity miEVs. In this work, by comprehensively reviewing the bovine miEVs studies, we provide an overview of current knowledge and research on miEVs while highlighting their challenges and enormous promise as a novel class of theranostics. It is hoped that this study will pave the way for clinical applications of miEVs by addressing their challenges and opportunities.

Advances in Nanocarrier Systems for Overcoming Formulation Challenges of Curcumin: Current Insights

Curcumin, an organic phenolic molecule that is extracted from the rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn, has undergone extensive evaluation for its diverse biological activities in both animals and humans. Despite its favorable characteristics, curcumin encounters various formulation challenges and stability issues that can be effectively addressed through the application of nanotechnology. Nano-based techniques specifically focused on enhancing solubility, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy while mitigating toxicity, have been explored for curcumin. This review systematically presents information on the improvement of curcumin's beneficial properties when incorporated, either individually or in conjunction with other drugs, into diverse nanosystems such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers. Additionally, the review examines ongoing clinical trials and recently granted patents, offering a thorough overview of the dynamic landscape in curcumin delivery. Researchers are currently exploring nanocarriers with crucial features such as surface modification, substantial loading capacity, biodegradability, compatibility, and autonomous targeting specificity and selectivity. Nevertheless, the utilization of nanocarriers for curcumin delivery is still in its initial phases, with regulatory approval pending and persistent safety concerns surrounding their use.

Effects of solid lipid nanocarrier containing methyl urolithin A by coating folate-bound chitosan and evaluation of its anti-cancer activity

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have received much attention over the past decade. In the present study, we synthesized Methyl Urolithin A-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles decorated with the folic acid-linked chitosan layer called MuSCF-NPs and investigated their effects on cancer cells.

METHODS

MuSCF-NPs were prepared using a high-pressure homogenization method and characterized using FTIR, FESEM, DLS, and zeta potential methods. Drug encapsulation was assessed by spectrophotometry and its cytotoxic effect on various cancer cells (MDA-MB231, MCF-7, PANC, AGS, and HepG2) by the MTT method. Antioxidant activity was assessed by the ABTS and DPPH methods, followed by expression of genes involved in oxidative stress and apoptosis by qPCR and flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The results showed the formation of monodisperse and stable round nanoparticles with a size of 84.8 nm. The drug loading efficiency in MuSCF-NPs was reported to be 88.6%. MuSCF-NPs exhibited selective cytotoxicity against MDA-MB231 cells (IC50 = 40 μg/mL). Molecular analysis showed a significant increase in the expression of Caspases 3, 8, and 9, indicating that apoptosis was occurring in the treated cells. Moreover, flow cytometry results showed that the treated cells were arrested in his SubG1 phase, confirming the pro-apoptotic effect of the nanoparticles. The results indicate a high antioxidant effect of the nanoparticles with IC50 values ​​of 45 μg/mL and 1500 μg/mL against ABTS and DPPH, respectively. The reduction of catalase gene expression confirmed the pro-oxidant effect of nanoparticles in cancer cells treated at concentrations of 20 and 40 μg/mL.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, our findings suggest that the MuSCF-NPs are suitable candidates, especially for breast cancer preclinical studies.

Preparation, stability, and antibacterial activity of carboxymethylated Anemarrhena asphodeloides polysaccharide-chitosan nanoparticles loaded curcumin

In present study, polysaccharide polyelectrolyte nanoparticles (CMAAP-CS NPs) were constructed by mixing carboxymethylated Anemarrhena asphodeloides polysaccharide (CMAAP) and chitosan (CS). CMAAP-CS NPs were applied as carrier to improve the bioavailability and stability of curcumin (Cur). The average particle size of CMAAP-CS NPs was 216.60 ± 4.21 nm and the entrapment efficiency of Cur reached 82.50 ± 2.09 %. The simulated digestion experiments in vitro confirmed that the bioavailability of Cur loaded in CMAAP-CS NPs was 59.84 ± 0.03 % after saliva, gastric and intestinal digestion, which was obvious higher than 21.57 ± 0.07 % of free Cur under the same conditions. The results of stability testing revealed that CMAAP-CS NPs could markedly reduce the degradation of Cur against storage, heating, UV light treatment, and neutral pH. This study provided promising polyelectrolyte complex loaded hydrophobic nutrients in medicine industry.

A Window for Enhanced Oral Delivery of Therapeutics via Lipid Nanoparticles

Oral administration of dosage forms is convenient and beneficial in several respects. Lipid nanoparticulate dosage forms have emerged as a useful carrier system in deploying low solubility drugs systemically, particularly class II, III, and IV drugs of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. Like other nanoparticulate delivery systems, their low size-to-volume ratio facilitates uptake by phagocytosis. Lipid nanoparticles also provide scope for high drug loading and extended-release capability, ensuring diminished systemic side effects and improved pharmacokinetics. However, rapid gastrointestinal (GI) clearance of particulate delivery systems impedes efficient uptake across the mucosa. Mucoadhesion of dosage forms to the GI mucosa results in longer transit times due to interactions between the former and mucus. Delayed transit times facilitate transfer of the dosage form across the mucosa. In this regard, a balance between mucoadhesion and mucopenetration guarantees optimal systemic transfer. Furthermore, the interplay between GI anatomy and physiology is key to ensuring efficient systemic uptake. This review captures salient anatomical and physiological features of the GI tract and how these can be exploited for maximal systemic delivery of lipid nanoparticles. Materials used to impart mucoadhesion and examples of successful mucoadhesive lipid nanoformulations are highlighted in this review.

Development of solid lipid nanoparticles-loaded drugs in parasitic diseases

Parasites cause illnesses with broad spectrum of symptoms from mild to severe, and are responsible for a significant number of outbreaks in the world. Current anti-parasitic drugs are toxic and have significant side effects. Nano-carriers are believed to obviate the limitations of conventional drugs via decreasing side effects and increasing target delivery and drug permeability with a controlled prolonged release of a drug. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which have frequently been practiced. Suitable release rate, stability, and target delivery make SLNs a good alternative for colloidal carriers. SLNs are supposed to have great potential to deliver natural products with anti-parasitic properties. Nanoparticles have employed to improve stability and capacity loading of SLNs, during recent years. This review describes development of SLNs, the methods of preparation, characterization, and loaded drugs into SLNs in parasitic diseases. In addition, we summarize recent development in anti-parasitic SLNs-loaded drugs.

Curcumin, its derivatives, and their nanoformulations: Revolutionizing cancer treatment

Curcumin is a natural compound derived from turmeric and can target malignant tumor molecules involved in cancer propagation. It has potent antioxidant activity, but its effectiveness is limited due to poor absorption and rapid elimination from the body. Various curcumin derivatives have also shown anticancer potential in in-vitro and in-vivo models. Curcumin can target multiple signaling pathways involved in cancer development/progression or induce cancer cell death through apoptosis. In addition, curcumin and its derivatives could also enhance the effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy, radiation therapy and reduce their associated side effects. Lately, nanoparticle-based delivery systems are being developed/explored to overcome the challenges associated with curcumin's delivery, increasing its overall efficacy. The use of an imaging system to track these formulations could also give beneficial information about the bioavailability and distribution of the nano-curcumin complex. In conclusion, curcumin holds significant promise in the fight against cancer, especially in its nanoform, and could provide precise delivery to cancer cells without affecting normal healthy cells.

The Chimera of TPGS and Nanoscale Lipid Carriers as Lymphatic Drug Delivery Vehicles to Fight Metastatic Cancers

The lymphatic system (LS) plays a crucial role in fluid balance, transportation of macromolecules, and immune response. Moreover, LS is a channel for microbial invasion and cancer metastasis. Particularly, solid tumors, including lung, breast, melanoma, and prostate cancers, are metastasized across highways of LS. Subsequently, the fabrication of chimeric lymphatic drug delivery systems (LDDS) is a promising strategy to fight cancer metastasis and control microbial pandemics. In this regard, LDDS, in terms of PEG-nanoscaled lipid carriers, elicited a revolution during the COVID-19 pandemic as cargoes for mRNA vaccines. The drug delivered by the lymphatic pathway escapes first-pass metabolism and enhances the drug's bioavailability. Ample approaches, including synthesis of prodrugs, trigging of chylomicron biosynthesis, and fabrication of nanocarriers, facilitate lymphatic drug delivery. Specifically, nanoscales lipid cargoes have the propensity to lymphatic trafficking. Interestingly, TPGSengineered nanoscale lipid cargoes enhance lymphatic trafficking, increase tissue permeation, and, specifically, uptake. Moreover, they overcome biological barriers, control biodistribution, and enhance organelles localization. Most anticancer agents are non-specific, have low bioavailability, and induced drug resistance. Therefore, TPGS-engineered nanoscale lipid chimeras improve the therapeutic impact of anticancer agents. This review highlights lymphatic cancer metastasis, nanoscales lipid cargoes as LDDS, and their influence on lymphatic trafficking, besides the methods of LDD studies.

Lipid-based nanoparticles for drug delivery in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that predominantly affects dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, resulting in symptoms such as tremors, muscle rigidity, bradykinesia, and potential cognitive and affective disturbances. The effective delivery of pharmacological agents to the central nervous system is hindered by various factors, including the restrictive properties of the blood‒brain barrier and blood‒spinal cord barrier, as well as the physicochemical characteristics of the drugs. Traditional drug delivery methods may not provide the therapeutic concentrations necessary for functional restoration in PD patients. However, lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) offer new possibilities for enhancing the bioavailability of established treatment regimens and developing innovative therapies that can modify the course of the disease. This review provides a concise overview of recent advances in lipid-based NP strategies aimed at mitigating specific pathological mechanisms relevant to PD progression. This study also explores the potential applications of nanotechnological innovations in the development of advanced treatment modalities for individuals with PD.

Biomacromolecule-based nanocarrier strategies to deliver plant-derived bioactive components for cancer treatment: A recent review

The quest for safe chemotherapy has attracted researchers to explore anticancer potential of herbal medicines. Owing to upsurging evidence of herbal drug's beneficial effects, hopes are restored for augmenting survival rates in cancer patients. However, phytoconstituents confronted severe limitations in terms of poor absorption, low-stability, and low bioavailability. Along with toxicity issues associated with phytoconstituents, quality control and limited regulatory guidance also hinder the prevalence of herbal medicines for cancer therapy. Attempts are underway to exploit nanocarriers to circumvent the limitations of existing and new herbal drugs, where biological macromolecules (e.g., chitosan, hyaluronic acid, etc.) are established highly effective in fabricating nanocarriers and cancer targeting. Among the discussed nanocarriers, liposomes and micelles possess properties to cargo hydro- and lipophilic herbal constituents with surface modification for targeted delivery. Majorly, PEG, transferrin and folate are utilized for surface modification to improve bioavailability, circulation time and targetability. The dendrimer and carbon nanotubes responded in high-loading efficiency of phytoconstituent; whereas, SLN and nanoemulsions are suited carriers for lipophilic extracts. This review emphasized unveiling the latent potential of herbal drugs along with discussing on extended benefits of nanocarriers-based delivery of phytoconstituents for safe cancer therapy owing to enhanced clinical and preclinical outcomes without compromising safety.

Nanocarriers transport across the gastrointestinal barriers: The contribution to oral bioavailability via blood circulation and lymphatic pathway

Oral administration is the preferred route of drug delivery in clinical practice due to its noninvasiveness, safety, convenience, and high patient compliance. The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) plays a crucial role in facilitating the targeted delivery of oral drugs. However, the GIT presents multiple barriers that impede drug absorption, including the gastric barrier in the stomach and the mucus and epithelial barriers in the intestine. In recent decades, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach for overcoming these challenges by utilizing nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems such as liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. Encapsulating drugs within nanocarriers not only protects them from degradation but also enhances their transport and absorption across the GIT, ultimately improving oral bioavailability. The aim of this review is to elucidate the mechanisms underlying nanocarrier-mediated transportation across the GIT into systemic circulation via both the blood circulation and lymphatic pathway.

Solid lipid nanoparticles of lutein with improved dissolution behavior and oral absorption

The present study aimed to develop solid lipid nanoparticles of lutein (SLN/LT) with improved dissolution behavior and oral absorption. SLN/LT were prepared by a flash nanoprecipitation method using a multi-inlet vortex mixer, and their physicochemical, photochemical, and pharmacokinetic properties were evaluated. The mean particle size of SLN/LT re-dispersed in water was 237 nm, and small spherical particles with no significant aggregation were observed. LT significantly generated singlet oxygen upon exposure to pseudo-sunlight (250 W/m2, 1 h), suggesting its high photoreactivity. The remaining LT in LT solution, crystalline LT, and SLN/LT after irradiation with pseudo-sunlight (250 W/m2, 2 h) were 56.3, 86.7, and 101%, respectively. SLN/LT showed improved dissolution behavior of LT in simulated intestinal fluid, and the dissolved amounts of LT at 2 h were at least 50 times higher than that of crystalline LT. Orally administered SLN/LT (100 mg-LT/kg) exhibited enhanced oral absorption of LT, as evidenced by a relative bioavailability of 3.7 to crystalline LT in rats. SLN/LT may be a promising dosage form for orally available LT supplements, possibly leading to enhanced nutritional functions of LT.

Cubic nanoparticles as potential carriers for a natural anticancer drug: development, in vitro and in vivo characterization

Natural compounds that elicit anticancer properties are of great interest for cancer therapy. However, the low solubility and bioavailability of these compounds limit their use as efficient anticancer drugs. To avoid these drawbacks, incorporation of these compounds into cubic nanoparticles (cubosomes) was carried out. Cubosomes containing bergapten which is a natural anticancer compound isolated from Ficus carica were prepared by the homogenization technique using monoolein and poloxamer. These cubosomes were characterized for size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, small angle X-ray diffraction, in vitro release, in vitro cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and antitumor activity. Particle size of cubosomes was 220 ± 3.6 nm with almost neutral zeta potential - 5 ± 1.2 mV and X-ray measurements confirmed the existence of the cubic structure. Additionally, more than 90% of the natural anticancer drug was entrapped within the cubosomes. A sustained release over 30 h was obtained for these cubosomes. Finally, these cubosomes illustrated higher in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo tumor inhibition compared with the free natural anticancer compound. Thus, cubosomes could be promising carriers for enhancement of antitumor efficiency of this natural compound.

Statistical optimization of tetrahydrocurcumin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles using Box Behnken design in the management of streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus

In the past, curcumin was the go-to medication for diabetes, but recent studies have shown that tetrahydrocurcumin is more effective. The problem is that it's not very soluble in water or very bioavailable. So, our research aims to increase the bioavailability and anti-diabetic efficacy of tetrahydrocurcumin in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats by synthesizing tetrahydrocurcumin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles. Box Behnken Design was employed for the optimization of tetrahydrocurcumin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (THC-SLNs). The optimal formulation was determined by doing an ANOVA to examine the relationship between the independent variables (drug-to-lipid ratio, surfactant concentration, and co-surfactant concentration) and the dependent variables (particle size, percent entrapment efficiency, and PDI). Particle size, PDI, and entrapment efficiency all showed statistical significance based on F-values and p-values. The optimized batch was prepared using a drug-to-lipid ratio (1:4.16), 1.21% concentration of surfactant, and 0.4775% co-surfactant (observed with a particle size of 147.1 nm, 83.58 ± 0.838 % entrapment efficiency, and 0.265 PDI, and the values were found very close with the predicted ones. As the THC peak vanishes from the DSC thermogram of the improved formulation, this indicates that the drug has been transformed from its crystalline form into its amorphous state. TEM analysis of optimized formulation demonstrated mono-dispersed particles with an average particle size of 145 nm which are closely related to zetasizer's results. In-vitro release study of optimized formulation demonstrated burst release followed by sustained release up to 71.04% throughout 24 hrs. Increased bioavailability of the adjusted THC-SLN was found in an in vivo pharmacokinetics research with 9.47 folds higher AUC(0-t) compared to plain THC-suspension. Additionally, pharmacodynamic experiments of optimized formulation demonstrated a marked decrease in blood glucose level to 63.7% and increased body weight from 195.8 ± 7.223 to 231.2 ± 7.653 on the 28th day of the study and showed a better anti-diabetic effect than plain drug suspension. Results of stability studies revealed that formulation can be stored for longer periods at room temperature. Tetrahydrocurcumin can be effectively administered by SLN for the treatment of diabetes.

Cracking the intestinal lymphatic system window utilizing oral delivery vehicles for precise therapy

Oral administration is preferred over other drug delivery methods due to its safety, high patient compliance, ease of ingestion without discomfort, and tolerance of a wide range of medications. However, oral drug delivery is limited by the poor oral bioavailability of many drugs, caused by extreme conditions and absorption challenges in the gastrointestinal tract. This review thoroughly discusses the targeted drug vehicles to the intestinal lymphatic system (ILS). It explores the structure and physiological barriers of the ILS, highlighting its significance in dietary lipid and medication absorption and transport. The review presents various approaches to targeting the ILS using spatially precise vehicles, aiming to enhance bioavailability, achieve targeted delivery, and reduce first-pass metabolism with serve in clinic. Furthermore, the review outlines several methods for leveraging these vehicles to open the ILS window, paving the way for potential clinical applications in cancer treatment and oral vaccine delivery. By focusing on targeted drug vehicles to the ILS, this article emphasizes the critical role of these strategies in improving therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes. Overall, this article emphasizes the critical role of targeted drug vehicles to the ILS and the potential impact of these strategies on improving therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes.

Application of Design of Experiment in the Optimization of Apixaban-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLnPs) are usually utilized as lipid-based formulations for enhancing oral bioavailability of BCS class IV drugs. Accordingly, the objective of this work was to investigate the effect of formulation and processing variables on the properties of the developed SLnPs for oral delivery of apixaban. Randomized full factorial design (24) was employed for optimization of SLnPs. With two levels for each independent variable, four factors comprising both formulations and processing factors were chosen: the GMS content (A), the Tween 80 content (B), the homogenization time (C), and the content of poloxamer 188 used (D). The modified hot homogenization and sonication method was employed in the formulation of solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with apixaban (APX-SLnPs). The size of APX-SLnPs formulations was measured to lie between 116.7 and 1866 nm, polydispersity index ranged from 0.385 to 1, and zeta potential was discovered to be in the range of - 12.6 to - 38.6 mV. The entrapping efficiency of APX-SLnPs formulations was found to be in the range of 22.8 to 96.7%. The optimized formulation was evaluated in vivo after oral administration to rats. Oral administration of APX-SLnPs resulted in significant prolongation in bleeding time compared with both positive and negative control. This indicates the ability of this system to enhance drug therapeutic effect either by increasing intestinal absorption or trans-lymphatic transport. So, this study highlighted the capability of SLnPs to boost the pharmacological effect of apixaban.

Gallic-Acid-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles: A Promising Transdermal Drug Delivery System with Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Agents

The objective of this study was to develop an innovative gallic-acid (GA) drug delivery system that could be administered transdermally, resulting in enhanced therapeutic benefits and minimal negative consequences. The method employed involved the preparation of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles loaded with GA through nanoprecipitation-denoted GA@PLGANPs. The results reveal that this strategy led to perfectly spherical, homogeneous, and negatively charged particles, which are suitable for administration via skin patches or ointments. A further analysis indicates that these GA@PLGANPs exhibit remarkable antioxidant activity as well as potent antibacterial effects against a diverse range of microorganisms, making them ideal candidates for numerous applications. Additionally, it has been observed that these nanoparticles can effectively mitigate oxidative stress while also significantly inhibiting microbial growth by exerting detrimental effects on bacterial cell walls or membranes. In conclusion, on the basis of the findings presented in this study, there is strong evidence supporting the potential use of GA@PLGANPs as an effective therapy option with reduced side effects compared to conventional drug delivery methods.

Progress and prospects of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for oral delivery of proteins/peptides

The oral route has long been recognized as the most preferred route for drug delivery as it offers high patient compliance and requires minimal expertise. Unlike small molecule drugs, the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract and low permeability across the intestinal epithelium make oral delivery extremely ineffective for macromolecules. Accordingly, delivery systems that are rationally constructed with suitable materials to overcome barriers to oral delivery are exceptionally promising. Among the most ideal materials are polysaccharides. Depending on the interaction between polysaccharides and proteins, the thermodynamic loading and release of proteins in the aqueous phase can be realized. Specific polysaccharides (dextran, chitosan, alginate, cellulose, etc.) endow systems with functional properties, including muco-adhesiveness, pH-responsiveness, and prevention of enzymatic degradation. Furthermore, multiple groups in polysaccharides can be modified, which gives them a variety of properties and enables them to suit specific needs. This review provides an overview of different types of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers based on different kinds of interaction forces and the influencing factors in the construction of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers. Strategies of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers to improve the bioavailability of orally administered proteins/peptides were described. Additionally, current restrictions and future trends of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for oral delivery of proteins/peptides were also covered.

Nanotechnologies for Physiology-Informed Drug Delivery to the Lymphatic System

Accompanying the increasing translational impact of immunotherapeutic strategies to treat and prevent disease has been a broadening interest across both bioscience and bioengineering in the lymphatic system. Herein, the lymphatic system physiology, ranging from its tissue structures to immune functions and effects, is described. Design principles and engineering approaches to analyze and manipulate this tissue system in nanoparticle-based drug delivery applications are also elaborated.

Clarithromycin-Loaded Submicron-Sized Carriers: Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation

The current study aims to improve clarithromycin bioavailability and effectiveness in complicated intra-abdominal infection management. Therefore, clarithromycin-loaded submicron dual lipid carriers (CLA-DLCs) were developed via hot high shear homogenization technique and evaluated for colloidal parameters, release behavior, stability study, and in-vitro antibiofilm activity. Bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of optimized formulation on hampering cytokines storm induction was determined in E. coli-induced peritonitis. The developed CLA-DLCs (particle size 326.19 ± 24.14 nm, zeta potential -31.34 ± 2.81 mV, and entrapment efficiency 85.78 ± 4.01%) exhibited smooth spherical shapes and sustained in vitro release profiles. Long-term stability study of optimized CLA-DLCs ensured maintenance of colloidal parameters for 1 year at room temperature. In vitro antimicrobial studies revealed 3.43-fold higher anti-biofilm activity of CLA-DLCs compared with clarithromycin. In addition, the relative bioavailability of CLA-DLCs was enhanced 5.89-fold compared to pure drug in rats. The remarkable decrease in microbial burden in blood as well as tissues, along with oxidative stress markers (lipid peroxidation, myeloperoxidase activity, and carbonylated protein level) and immunological markers (total leukocyte count, neutrophil migration, NO, TNF-, and IL-6) on treatment with CLA-DLCs enhanced the survival in a rat model of peritonitis compared with the pure drug and untreated groups. In conclusion, CLA-DLCs hold promising potential in management of intra-abdominal infections and prevention of associated complications.

Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems to Enhance the Functionality of Bioactive Compounds: Towards the Use of Ingredients from Natural, Sustainable Sources

In recent years, the trend in the population towards consuming more natural and sustainable foods has increased significantly. This claim has led to the search for new sources of bioactive compounds and extraction methods that have less impact on the environment. Moreover, the formulation of systems to protect these compounds is also focusing on the use of ingredients of natural origin. This article reviews novel, natural alternative sources of bioactive compounds with a positive impact on sustainability. In addition, it also contains information on the most recent studies based on the use of natural (especially from plants) emulsifiers in the design of emulsion-based delivery systems to protect bioactive compounds. The properties of these natural-based emulsion-delivery systems, as well as their functionality, including in vitro and in vivo studies, are also discussed. This review provides relevant information on the latest advances in the development of emulsion delivery systems based on ingredients from sustainable natural sources.

Effects of Particle Size of Curcumin Solid Dispersions on Bioavailability and Anti-Inflammatory Activities

The delivery of curcumin (CUR) using the solid dispersion system (CUR solid dispersions; C-SDs) has been shown to improve CUR bioavailability. However, it is unclear how different particle sizes of C-SDs affect the bioavailability and biological activities of CUR. Hence, we prepared C-SDs in different sizes using food-grade excipients and evaluated their bioavailability and biological activities. By pulverizing large particle sizes of C-SDs using zirconia beads, we successfully prepared C-SDs I-IV (particle size: (I) 120, (II) 447, (III) 987, (IV) 1910 nm). When administrated orally in rats, the bioavailability of CUR was increased with decreasing C-SDs size, most likely by improving its solubility in micelles. When administrated intravenously in rats, blood concentrations of CUR were increased with increasing particle size, suggesting that larger C-SDs presumably control the metabolic conversion of CUR. In RAW264 cells, more CUR was taken up by cells as their sizes reduced, and the more potent their anti-inflammatory activities were, suggesting that smaller C-SDs were taken up through a number of cellular uptake pathways. Altogether, the present study showed an evident effect of C-SDs size on their bioavailability and anti-inflammatory activities—information that serves as a basis for improving the functionality of CUR.

Lipid-core nanoparticles: Classification, preparation methods, routes of administration and recent advances in cancer treatment

Nanotechnological drug delivery platforms represent a new paradigm for cancer therapeutics as they improve the pharmacokinetic profile and distribution of chemotherapeutic agents over conventional formulations. Among nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoplatforms possessing a lipid core, that is, lipid-core nanoparticles (LCNPs), have gained increasing interest due to lipid properties such as high solubilizing potential, versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, due to the wide spectrum of morphologies and types of LCNPs, there is a lack of consensus regarding their terminology and classification. According to the current state-of-the-art in this critical review, LCNPs are defined and classified based on the state of their lipidic components in liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs). These include lipid nanoemulsions (LNEs) and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs). In addition, we present a comprehensive and comparative description of the methods employed for their preparation, routes of administration and the fundamental role of physicochemical properties of LCNPs for efficient antitumoral drug-delivery application. Market available LCNPs, clinical trials and preclinical in vivo studies of promising LCNPs as potential treatments for different cancer pathologies are summarized.

Recent Progress of Lipid Nanoparticles-Based Lipophilic Drug Delivery: Focus on Surface Modifications

Numerous drugs have emerged to treat various diseases, such as COVID-19, cancer, and protect human health. Approximately 40% of them are lipophilic and are used for treating diseases through various delivery routes, including skin absorption, oral administration, and injection. However, as lipophilic drugs have a low solubility in the human body, drug delivery systems (DDSs) are being actively developed to increase drug bioavailability. Liposomes, micro-sponges, and polymer-based nanoparticles have been proposed as DDS carriers for lipophilic drugs. However, their instability, cytotoxicity, and lack of targeting ability limit their commercialization. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have fewer side effects, excellent biocompatibility, and high physical stability. LNPs are considered efficient vehicles of lipophilic drugs owing to their lipid-based internal structure. In addition, recent LNP studies suggest that the bioavailability of LNP can be increased through surface modifications, such as PEGylation, chitosan, and surfactant protein coating. Thus, their combinations have an abundant utilization potential in the fields of DDSs for carrying lipophilic drugs. In this review, the functions and efficiencies of various types of LNPs and surface modifications developed to optimize lipophilic drug delivery are discussed.

Intranasal Polymeric and Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for CNS Drug Delivery

Nanomedicine is currently focused on the design and development of nanocarriers that enhance drug delivery to the brain to address unmet clinical needs for treating neuropsychiatric disorders and neurological diseases. Polymer and lipid-based drug carriers are advantageous for delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) due to their safety profiles, drug-loading capacity, and controlled-release properties. Polymer and lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) are reported to penetrate the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and have been extensively assessed in in vitro and animal models of glioblastoma, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disease. Since approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of intranasal esketamine for treatment of major depressive disorder, intranasal administration has emerged as an attractive route to bypass the BBB for drug delivery to the CNS. NPs can be specifically designed for intranasal administration by tailoring their size and coating with mucoadhesive agents or other moieties that promote transport across the nasal mucosa. In this review, unique characteristics of polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers desirable for drug delivery to the brain are explored in addition to their potential for drug repurposing for the treatment of CNS disorders. Progress in intranasal drug delivery using polymeric and lipid-based nanostructures for the development of treatments of various neurological diseases are also described.

Application of Design of Experiments in the Development of Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems

Oral delivery has become the route of choice among all other types of drug administrations. However, typical chronic disease drugs are often poorly water-soluble, have low dissolution rates, and undergo first-pass metabolism, ultimately leading to low bioavailability and lack of efficacy. The lipid-based formulation offers tremendous benefits of using versatile excipients and has great compatibility with all types of dosage forms. Self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) promotes drug self-emulsification in a combination of oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant, thereby facilitating better drug solubility and absorption. The feasible preparation of SMEDDS creates a promising strategy to improve the drawbacks of lipophilic drugs administered orally. Selecting a decent mixing among these components is, therefore, of importance for successful SMEDDS. Quality by Design (QbD) brings a systematic approach to drug development, and it offers promise to significantly improve the manufacturing quality performance of SMEDDS. Furthermore, it could be benefited efficiently by conducting pre-formulation studies integrated with the statistical design of experiment (DoE). In this review, we highlight the recent findings for the development of microemulsions and SMEDDS by using DoE methods to optimize the formulations for drugs in different excipients with controllable ratios. A brief overview of DoE concepts is discussed, along with its technical benefits in improving SMEDDS formulations.

Optimization of Gefitinib-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier as a Biomedical Tool in the Treatment of Metastatic Lung Cancer

Gefitinib (GEF) is utilized in clinical settings for the treatment of metastatic lung cancer. However, premature drug release from nanoparticles in vivo increases the exposure of systemic organs to GEF. Herein, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) were utilized not only to avoid premature drug release but also due to their inherent lymphatic tropism. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop a GEF-NLC as a lymphatic drug delivery system with low drug release. Design of experiments was utilized to develop a stable GEF-NLC as a lymphatic drug delivery system for the treatment of metastatic lung cancer. The in vitro drug release of GEF from the prepared GEF-NLC formulations was studied to select the optimum formulation. MTT assay was utilized to study the cytotoxic activity of GEF-NLC compared to free GEF. The optimized GEF-NLC formulation showed favorable physicochemical properties: <300 nm PS, <0.2 PDI, <−20 ZP values with >90% entrapment efficiency. Interestingly, the prepared formulation was able to retain GEF with only ≈57% drug release within 24 h. Furthermore, GEF-NLC reduced the sudden exposure of cultured cells to GEF and produced the required cytotoxic effect after 48 and 72 h incubation time. Consequently, optimized formulation offers a promising approach to improve GEF’s therapeutic outcomes with reduced systemic toxicity in treating metastatic lung cancer.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Peculiar Strategy to Deliver Bio-Proactive Molecules

BACKGROUND

Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) provide numerous benefits compared to conventional dosage forms. Poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability, frequent dosing, and particular hydrophilic lipophilic character of the drug are the biological factors associated with the traditional systems leading to the development of SLNs.

OBJECTIVE

For improving the solubility profile, enhancing the bioavailability, and attaining the best possible therapeutic effect of lipid inclined or aqueous inclined drug, formulating solid lipid nanoparticles is the best choice.

METHODS

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) have been projected as a colloidal carrier system with a size of 50-1,000 nm, collectively combining the benefits of other colloidal systems like liposomes, emulsions, etc., for delivering the drug at the target site. High absorption, high stability, and efficient drug packing enhance the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the packed drug.

RESULT

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles can be developed in different dosage forms and administered via routes such as nasal, rectal, oral, topical, vaginal, ocular, and parenteral. They have higher physicochemical stability and the batch size can be easily scaled up at a low cost. Lipophilic as well as hydrophilic drugs can be easily incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

In this manuscript, the authors have reviewed different aspects of solid lipid nanoparticles, major principles behind mechanism methods, recent patents, applications, and therapeutic potentials of solid lipid nanoparticles.

Locoregional Lymphatic Delivery Systems Using Nanoparticles and Hydrogels for Anticancer Immunotherapy

The lymphatic system has gained significant interest as a target tissue to control cancer progress, which highlights its central role in adaptive immune response. Numerous mechanistic studies have revealed the benefits of nano-sized materials in the transport of various cargos to lymph nodes, overcoming barriers associated with lymphatic physiology. The potential of sustained drug delivery systems in improving the therapeutic index of various immune modulating agents is also being actively discussed. Herein, we aim to discuss design rationales and principles of locoregional lymphatic drug delivery systems for invigorating adaptive immune response for efficient antitumor immunotherapy and provide examples of various advanced nanoparticle- and hydrogel-based formulations.

Current Applications of Plant-Based Drug Delivery Nano Systems for Leishmaniasis Treatment

Leishmania is a trypanosomatid that causes leishmaniasis. It is transmitted to vertebrate hosts during the blood meal of phlebotomine sandflies. The clinical manifestations of the disease are associated with several factors, such as the Leishmania species, virulence and pathogenicity, the host-parasite relationship, and the host's immune system. Although its causative agents have been known and studied for decades, there have been few advances in the chemotherapy of leishmaniasis. The urgency of more selective and less toxic alternatives for the treatment of leishmaniasis leads to research focused on the study of new pharmaceuticals, improvement of existing drugs, and new routes of drug administration. Natural resources of plant origin are promising sources of bioactive substances, and the use of ethnopharmacology and folk medicine leads to interest in studying new medications from phytocomplexes. However, the intrinsic low water solubility of plant derivatives is an obstacle to developing a therapeutic product. Nanotechnology could help overcome these obstacles by improving the availability of common substances in water. To contribute to this scenario, this article provides a review of nanocarriers developed for delivering plant-extracted compounds to treat clinical forms of leishmaniasis and critically analyzing them and pointing out the future perspectives for their application.