Swertiamarin: A lead from Enicostemma littorale Blume. for anti-hyperlipidaemic effect

Protective effect of Enicostemma axillare - Swertiamarin on oxidative stress against nicotine-induced liver damage in SD rats

OBJECTIVE

The current investigation was aimed to determine the hepatoprotective benefits of Swertiamarin (ST) administration against nicotine-induced hepatotoxicity in SD rats.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 48 adult male SD rats were allocated into six groups using a fully randomised approach. As a control, group I was given oral (PO) normal saline. For 65 days, the animals in groups II, III, IV, V and VI received 2.5mg/kg/day of nicotine intraperitoneally (IP), 100mg/kg/day of ST orally (PO), 200mg/kg/day of ST orally (PO), 2.5mg/kg/day of nicotine (IP)+100mg/kg/day of ST (PO), and 2.5mg/kg/day of nicotine (IP)+200mg/kg/day of ST (PO), respectively. Animals were killed on 66thday, liver tissue was removed and used for histopathological analysis as well as biochemical testing (oxidative stress parameters and liver function enzymes).

RESULTS

When compared to control animals, the animals in group II showed a substantial rise in their aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), urea, and creatinine levels (P˂0.001). Furthermore, compared to control animals, these animals displayed enhanced hepatic oxidative stress as indicated by significantly higher Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels (P˂0.001) and lower levels of Catalase (CAT), Glutathione (GSH), Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) (P˂0.001). Further, more histological anomalies were seen in the liver of nicotine-treated rats compared to control rats, including significant vacuolization, poor tissue architecture, the growth of pycnotic nuclei, and dilated sinusoids. Contrary to nicotine-treated rats, the co-administration of ST and nicotine was observed to prevent the abnormalities caused by nicotine (groups V and VI).

CONCLUSION

The results of the current study show that nicotine can seriously harm liver tissue and that swertiamarin can prevent the harmful effects of nicotine on rat liver. Future research is necessary to delve deeply into the mechanisms behind swertiamarin protective impact against nicotine-induced hepatotoxicity.

Inhibition of tumor migration and invasion by fenofibrate via suppressing epithelial-mesenchymal transition in breast cancers

The recurrence and metastasis in breast cancer within 3 years after the chemotherapies or surgery leads to poor prognosis with approximately 1-year overall survival. Large-scale scanning research studies have shown that taking lipid-lowering drugs may assist to reduce the risk of death from many cancers, since cholesterol in lipid rafts are essential for maintain integral membrane structure and functional signaling regulation. In this study, we examined five lipid-lowering drugs: swertiamarin, gemfibrozil, clofibrate, bezafibrate, and fenofibrate in triple-negative breast cancer, which is the most migration-prone subtype. Using human and murine triple-negative breast cancer cell lines (Hs 578 t and 4 T1), we found that fenofibrate displays the highest potential in inhibiting the colony formation, wound healing, and transwell migration. We further discovered that fenofibrate reduces the activity of pro-metastatic enzymes, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-9 and MMP-2. In addition, epithelial markers including E-cadherin and Zonula occludens-1 are increased, whereas mesenchymal markers including Snail, Twist and α-smooth muscle actin are attenuated. Furthermore, we found that fenofibrate downregulates ubiquitin-dependent GDF-15 degradation, which leads to enhanced GDF-15 expression that inhibits cell migration. Besides, nuclear translocation of FOXO1 is also upregulated by fenofibrate, which may responsible for GDF-15 expression. In summary, fenofibrate with anti-cancer ability hinders TNBC from migration and invasion, and may be beneficial to repurposing use of fenofibrate.

Can Polyherbal Medicine be used for the Treatment of Diabetes? - A Review of Historical Classics, Research Evidence and Current Prevention Programs

Diabetes mellitus (DM), a chronic medical condition, has attained a global pandemic status over the last few decades affecting millions of people. Despite a variety of synthetic drugs available in the market, the use of herbal medicines for managing diabetes is gaining importance because of being comparatively safer. This article reviews the result of a substantial literature search on polyherbal formulations (PHFs) developed and evaluated with potential for DM. The accumulated data in the literature allowed us to enlist 76PHFs consisting of different parts of 147 plant species belonging to 58 botanical families. The documented plant species are laden with bioactive components with anti-diabetic properties and thus draw attention. The most favoured ingredient for PHFs was leaves of Gymnema sylvestre and seeds of Trigonella foenum-graecum used in 27 and 22 formulations, respectively. Apart from herbs, shilajit (exudates from high mountain rocks) formed an important component of 9 PHFs, whereas calcined Mytilus margaritiferus and goat pancreas were used in Dolabi, the most commonly used tablet form of PHF in Indian markets. The healing properties of PHFs against diabetes have been examined in both pre-clinical studies and clinical trials. However, the mechanism(s) of action of PHFs are still unclear and considered the pitfalls inherent in understanding the benefits of PHFs. From the information available based on experimental systems, it could be concluded that plant-derived medicines will have a considerable role to play in the control of diabetes provided the challenges related to their bioavailability, bioefficacy, optimal dose, lack of characterization, ambiguous mechanism of action, and clinical efficiency are addressed.

Mangiferin from Enicostemma littorale Blume with in silico and in vitro anti-inflammatory potential

The bioassay-guided fractionation of the extract of aerial parts of Enicostemma littorale resulted in two fractions 3 and 4 with moderate and potent antioxidant activity, respectively. The purification of fraction 3 gave swertiamarin (1), while the LCMS profile of fraction 4 unveiled the presence of another constituent along with swertiamarin. The extensive purification of fraction 4 led to the unusual isolation of mangiferin (2) from E. littorale. The uncommon isolation of mangiferin from E. littorale motivated us to conduct its in silico and in vitro screening as an anti-inflammatory agent. Both studies have proved mangiferin to be a promising anti-inflammatory molecule with a binding energy of -9.17 kcal/mol against Cyclooxygenase-2 protein and IC50 of 146.07 nanomolar. This study is the first report of the isolation of mangiferin, a xanthone glycoside from E. littorale.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Investigating the potential role of swertiamarin on insulin resistant and non-insulin resistant granulosa cells of poly cystic ovarian syndrome patients

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Conventional drugs have limitations due to prevalence of contraindications in PCOS patients. To explore the potential effects of swertiamarin, on abrupted insulin and steroidogenic signaling in human luteinized granulosa cells from PCOS patients with or without insulin resistance.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

hLGCs from 8 controls and 16 PCOS patients were classified for insulin resistance based on down regulation of protein expression of insulin receptor-β (INSR- β) as shown in our previous paper. Cells were grouped as control, PCOS-IR and PCOS-NIR, treated with swertiamarin (66 µM) and metformin (1 mM). Expression of key molecules involved in insulin signaling, fat metabolism, IGF system and steroidogenesis were compared between groups.

RESULTS

Swertiamarin significantly (P < 0.05) reversed the expression of INSR-β, PI(3)K, p-Akt, PKC-ζ, PPARγ, (P < 0.01) IRS (Ser 307) and IGF system in PCOS-IR group and was equally potent to metformin. In the same group, candidate genes viz SREBP1c, FAS, ACC-1 and CPT-1 were down regulated by swertiamarin (P < 0.001) and metformin (P < 0.001). Significant upregulation was demonstrated in expression of StAR, CYP19A1, 17β-HSD and 3β-HSD when treated with swertiamarin (P < 0.01) and metformin (P < 0.01) in PCOS-IR followed by increase in 17β-HSD and 3β-HSD enzyme activity along with estradiol and progesterone secretions. However, swertiamarin did not reveal any effect on PCOS-NIR group as compared to metformin that significantly (P < 0.01) reversed all the parameters related to steroidogenesis and down regulated basal expression of insulin signaling genes.

CONCLUSION

Swertiamarin, presents itself as a potential fertility drug in hLGCs from PCOS-IR patients.

Natural Monoterpenes as Potential Therapeutic Agents against Atherosclerosis

Traditional herbal medicines based on natural products play a pivotal role in preventing and managing atherosclerotic diseases, which are among the leading causes of death globally. Monoterpenes are a large class of naturally occurring compounds commonly found in many aromatic and medicinal plants. Emerging evidence has shown that monoterpenes have many biological properties, including cardioprotective effects. Remarkably, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of natural monoterpenes to protect against the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. These findings shed light on developing novel effective antiatherogenic drugs from these compounds. Herein, we provide an overview of natural monoterpenes' effects on atherogenesis and the underlying mechanisms. Monoterpenes have pleiotropic and multitargeted pharmacological properties by interacting with various cell types and intracellular molecular pathways involved in atherogenesis. These properties confer remarkable advantages in managing atherosclerosis, which has been recognized as a multifaceted vascular disease. We also discuss limitations in the potential clinical application of monoterpenes as therapeutic agents against atherosclerosis. We propose perspectives to give new insights into future preclinical research and clinical practice regarding natural monoterpenes.

Activated Carbon-Based Immunochromatographic Strip Test for the Rapid Qualitative Analysis of Swertiamarin and Sweroside

Background

Swertia japonica (S. japonica) is a medicinal plant that belongs to the Gentianaceae family. Several reports confirm the biological effects of the S. japonica extract. This plant is used mainly as a digestive stimulant, appetite stimulant, and gastrointestinal disease remedy in Japan. Secoiridoid glycosides are a group of compounds related to the beneficial effects of this plant.

Objective

We developed an immunochromatographic strip test for major secoiridoid glycosides, such as swertiamarin (SM) and sweroside (SS) detection.

Methods

We fabricated an immunoprobe using activated carbon as a reporter molecule and a monoclonal antibody against SM and SS (MAb D2) as a detection molecule. The test and control zones of the strip test contained SM-cBSA and Goat pAb anti-mouse IgM HRP conjugate, respectively. The immunoprobe reacted competitively with free SM and/or SS and immobilized SM-cBSA. The results were read and interpreted by the black spot intensity in the test zone.

Results

We succeeded in developing a strip test system with a detection limit (LOD) of 12.5 µg/mL. The selectivity and reliability evaluation revealed that the strip test is suitable for detecting SM and SS in S. japonica. The result was ready to be read in 30 min.

Conclusions

This method can be a useful tool for the screening of biologically active S. japonica samples for further preparation of traditional medicine.

Highlights

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first immunochromatographic strip test developed for the detection of SM and SS in S. japonica samples.

Investigation of phytoconstituents of Enicostemma littorale as potential glucokinase activators through molecular docking for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus

Glucokinase (GK) is an enzyme involved in synthesising glucose into glucose-6 phosphate and serves a crucial function in glucose sensing. Therefore, agents that induce GK activation could be used to treat T2DM. The present work has been carried out to investigate the GK activation potential of phytoconstituents of Enicostemma littorale through molecular docking. All the phytoconstituents have been screened through the Lipinski rule of 5, Veber's rule, and ADMET properties. From these initial screening, only Apigenin, Ferulic acid, Genkwanin, p-coumaric acid, Protocatechuic acid, Syringic acid, and Vanillic acid have been selected to perform molecular docking studies. The binding free energy and binding mode of the native ligand in the allosteric site of the enzyme have been considered the reference for the other molecules' validation. The native ligand has exhibited - 7.2 kcal/mol binding free energy, whereas; it has formed four hydrogen bonds with THR-228, LYS-169, ASP-78, and GLY-81. Based on these findings, the interactions of phytoconstituents have been justified. Apigenin, genkwanin, and swertiamarin exhibited - 8.7, - 7.5, and - 8.3 kcal/mol binding free energy, respectively, which indicates better enzyme activation than the native ligand. Swertiamarin has formed 08 hydrogen bonds with allosteric amino acid residues, which confirms the excellent enzyme activation by these phytoconstituents. We concluded that if we can isolate and consume the exact active phytoconstituents (GK activators) from this plant, we can use them effectively to treat T2DM. More GK activators can be developed by considering them as a natural lead moiety.

Swertiamarin supplementation prevents obesity-related chronic inflammation and insulin resistance in mice fed a high-fat diet

Obesity is characterized by low-grade chronic inflammation, which underlies insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Swertiamarin is a secoiridoid glycoside that has been reported to ameliorate diabetes and NAFLD in animal models. However, the effects of swertiamarin on obesity-related inflammation and insulin resistance have not been fully elucidated. Thus, this study investigated the effects of swertiamarin on inflammation and insulin resistance in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice. C57BL/6 mice were fed a HFD or HFD containing swertiamarin for 8 weeks. Obesity-induced insulin resistance and inflammation were assessed in the epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) and livers of the mice. Swertiamarin attenuated HFD-induced weight gain, glucose intolerance, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance, and enhanced insulin signalling in mice. Compared to HFD-fed mice, the swertiamarin-treated mice exhibited increased lipolysis and reduced adipocyte hypertrophy and macrophage infiltration in eWAT. Moreover, swertiamarin alleviated HFD-mediated hepatic steatosis and inflammation by suppressing activation of the p38 MAPK and NF-κB pathways within the eWAT and liver of obese mice. In conclusion, supplementation with swertiamarin attenuated weight gain and hepatic steatosis, and alleviated obesity-associated inflammation and insulin resistance, in obese mice.

A monoclonal antibody-based indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to quantify swertiamarin and related compounds in Swertia japonica Makino

INTRODUCTION

Swertia japonica Makino (S. japonica) has a long history of use as a folk medicine, and it is one of the three essential Japanese folk medicines. S.japonica has been reported to have various biological activities. The biologically active secoiridoid glycoside swertiamarin (SM) has been isolated from S. japonica. The efficacy of this plant is attributed to SM and related secoiridoid glycosides. To control the quality of S. japonica for medicinal use, a method for the determination of SM and other secoiridoid glycosides in the plant is needed.

OBJECTIVE

To produce an anti-SM monoclonal antibody (MAb) and develop an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA) for S. japonica standardisation and quality control.

METHODOLOGY

SM was conjugated to cationised bovine serum albumin (cBSA), and the SM-cBSA conjugate was used to immunise BALB/c mice. Splenocytes from the immunised mice were then fused with SP2/0 myeloma cells to produce hybridoma cells that expressed anti-SM MAb.

RESULTS

The developed icELISA was sufficiently sensitive and had a quantitative range of 0.78 to 12.5 μg/mL. Coefficients of variation below 10% indicated good repeatability. Recoveries in a spike and recovery assay ranged from 91.84% to 115.50%, which confirmed that the icELISA was accurate. The SM content measured using the icELISA was in agreement with the results of a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) assay.

CONCLUSION

The icELISA is suitable for the high-throughput analysis of SM and other secoiridoid glycosides in S. japonica. The method is fast, economical, and reliable for S. japonica quality control.

Synthesis, molecular docking and ADMET prediction of novel swertiamarin analogues for the restoration of type-2 diabetes: an enzyme inhibition assay

Swertiamarin is a lead, biologically active compound obtained from Enicostemma littorale Blume and known to be identified for the anti-diabetic activity. Present work comprises the synthesis and structural optimization of seven novel swertiamarin analogues and those were not being reported elsewhere till date. Swertiamarin was isolated, followed by modifications that have been accomplished amidst fluorinating, acetylating and oxidizing agents and also performed chromatographic purity and characterization of analogues. Furthermore, the swertiamarin analogues were screened for dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) enzyme inhibition with in silico studies. Besides, the pharmacokinetics and toxicity of analogues were predicted using ADMET software. In a nutshell, the compounds such as SNIPERSV-4 and SNIPERSV-7 have to pose good initial activity (∼48%) in comparison to standard DPP-IV inhibitor (Sitagliptin). The identified analogues were active against DPP-IV enzyme in preliminary screenings, and these findings would be beneficial for the new age researchers also for the therapy of diabetes.

Swertiamarin and quercetin combination ameliorates hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus in wistar rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Swertiamarin (Sw) and quercetin (Qu) have been isolated from different plants and are reported for their antidiabetic activities. The plants from which swertiamarin and quercetin were isolated are also traditionally used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study is aimed to evaluate the synergistic effect of a combination of swertiamarin and quercetin (CSQ) on α-amylase in vitro and on streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetes mellitus in vivo.

METHODS

Swertiamarin was isolated from the plant Enicostemma axillare and quercetin was procured in its pure form. Sw, Qu and CSQ were evaluated for in vitro α-amylase inhibitory activity. Based on the in vitro study results, CSQ was assessed for in vivo streptozotocin induced diabetes mellitus in Wistar rats. The effect of CSQ on blood glucose levels, body weight, serum biochemical parameters and antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and lipid peroxide levels were estimated. The histopathological observations of pancreatic tissues were also made.

RESULTS

The purity of swertiamarin was confirmed by HPLC. The results showed that CSQ was found to possess high percentage of inhibition in an in vitro α-amylase inhibitory study. In a STZ-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), body weight of rats in CSQ treated and control groups were unaltered. A marked reduction in the blood glucose levels was observed in the CSQ treated groups on 14th and 28th day. Decrease in the levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides, total cholesterol and an increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level was observed in a dose dependant in CSQ treated groups. However, CSQ treated groups could significantly improve antioxidant protection by increasing the levels of serum GSH, SOD, Catalase and GPx and decreasing the levels of lipid peroxide (p < 0.05). In the histopathological study, the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and vacuolization have shown significant increase in both the treated groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of swertiamarin and quercetin (CSQ) has proven a preventive and therapeutic effect against T2DM and suggests that this is a potential combination of phytoconstituents for excellent hypoglycemic activity in T2DM.

The Effects of Natural Iridoids and Anthocyanins on Selected Parameters of Liver and Cardiovascular System Functions

The old adage says, "you are what you eat." And although it is a banality repeated by many with a grain of salt, it also has quite a bit of truth in it, as the products we eat have a considerable impact on our health. Unfortunately, humanity is eating worse from one year to another, both in terms of product quality and eating habits. At the same time, it is brought up frequently that plant products should form the basis of our diet. This issue was also reflected in the new version of the food pyramid. Iridoids and anthocyanins are groups of plant compounds with proven beneficial effects on health. Both groups affect the cardiovascular system and the liver functions. Although many mechanisms of action and the therapeutic effects of these compounds have already been learned, intensive animal and clinical research is still underway to explore their new curative mechanisms and effects or to broaden our knowledge of those previously described. In this article, we review the effects of natural iridoids and anthocyanins on selected parameters of liver and cardiovascular system functions.

Medicinal and edible plants used by the Lhoba people in Medog County, Tibet, China

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Lhoba people are a small, ancient, tribal ethnic group from the Himalayas and are located in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Medog County is rich in biocultural diversity. For a long time, Medog has been almost isolated from the outside world. The Lhoba people, who live in Medog, have maintained a relatively unique lifestyle and have accumulated rich traditional knowledge (TK), especially about medicinal and edible plants. Currently, there is very little documentation of the plants traditionally used by the local Lhoba communities.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our investigation aimed to (i) document the species of medicinal and food plants used by the Lhoba people in Medog County, Tibet, China; (ii) screen the most important plant taxa for specific medicines, and identify the aliments treated to further contribute to drug and food supplement research; and (iii) examine whether the ethnobotanical knowledge of the Lhoba is similar among different tribes and discuss traditional uses in the health practices and livelihoods of the local communities.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical data were recorded through semi-structured interviews, guided field trips, and quantitative analysis. The informant consensus factor (FIC) was used as a quantitative index.

RESULTS

Ninety-one informants (61 men and 30 women) were interviewed. A total of 75 species, including 37 medicinal plants for 14 categories of diseases and 57 edible plants from six types of food, were recorded. Among the usage types of medicinal plants, the highest FIC values were recorded for antidotes (FIC = 0.98), anthelmintics (FIC = 0.98), and treatments of gastrointestinal problems (FIC = 0.93). The FIC values for different types of edible plants were very similar. The most frequently used medicinal and food plants in the studied communities are Zanthoxylum motuoense, Crassocephalum crepidioides, and Swertia nervosa. According to the comparative study, few differences in the use of wild plants were found. There appeared to be more overlapping species between two Lhoba tribes in Medog, named Mixingba and Miguba, with 46 (61%) common species, compared with the Bo'gaer tribe in Milin, which had only two (2.7%) overlapping species. This might be due to the different geographical environments, vegetation types, and different influences of other ethnic cultures.

CONCLUSIONS

The Lhoba people in Medog County, Tibet, China, have rich TK about the uses of wild plants. However, the TK is seriously threatened due to environmental degradation and acculturation, and it showed signs of being forgotten and abandoned by the younger generation. Therefore, measures are urgently needed to document and protect the TK of the uses of the wild plant resources; and (i) the most frequently used medicinal and/or edible plants; (ii) the plants used to treat the most commonly mentioned diseases; and (iii) the endemic species that are widely used in Medog, which should be assessed for their potential future as food supplements and therapeutic products.

The complete chloroplast genome of Tibetan medicine Gentianopsis paludosa

Gentianopsis paludosa (Mum.) Ma is an important species in Tibetan folk medicine, but its wild populations are shrinking roughly due to the increasing demand for it. Gentianopsis paludosa is presently at risk of over-exploitation, so it needs urgent conservation. Here, we report the complete sequence of the chloroplast genome of G. paludosa. The genome was 51,121 bp in length with 129 genes comprising 84 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, and eight rRNA genes. The overall GC content of G. paludosa chloroplast genome was is 36.67%. The phylogenomic analysis suggested that G. paludosa forms a clade with species in Halenia and Swertia, indicating that the G. paludosa is more closely related to Halenia and Swertia than that of Gentiana.

Molecular docking, antiproliferative and anticonvulsant activities of swertiamarin isolated from Enicostemma axillare

Present study aimed for molecular docking, antiproliferative and anticonvulsant activities of swertiamarin isolated from the successive methanol extract of Enicostemma axillare. Molecular docking of swertiamarin on telomerase targets (PDB ID: 5UGW, 3DU6 and 4ERD), followed by antiproliferative activity on HEp2 and HT-29 cells by MTT and SRB assays. Also tested for anticonvulsant activity by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ, 80 mg/kg bw) induced convulsant. Molecular docking study predicted good total score of the swertiamarin with the selected targets. Swertiamarin possesses antiproliferative activity on HEp-2 and HT-29 cells with lower CTC₅₀ values. It also served as significant anticonvulsant agent with prolonged onset and reduced duration of the seizures. These results confirm that swertiamarin exhibited potential antiproliferative and anticonvulsant activities.

Bioinformatics analysis of differentially expressed genes in hepatocellular carcinoma cells exposed to Swertiamarin

Aim: To explore gene expression profiling in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells exposed to swertiamarin.

Methods: Cell viability, apoptosis and invasion were examined in HepG2 cells after swertiamarin treatment. Tumor growth of SK-Hep-1 cells xenografted in nude mice was monitored after swertiamarin treatment. Total RNA was isolated from HepG2 cells treated with swertiamarin for microarray analysis. The data of microarray were analyzed by bioinformatics.

Results: Swertiamarin treatment decreased the viability and invasion while increased the apoptosis of HepG2 cells, and significantly inhibited the growth of SK-Hep-1 cells xenografted in nude mice. Pathway and biological process analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in swertiamarin treated HepG2 cells showed that PI3k-Akt was the most significant regulated pathway. 47 targets of swertiamarin were predicted by CGBVS while 21 targets were predicted by 3NN. Notably, 8 targets were predicted as the targets of swertiamarin by both programs, including two prominent targets JUN and STAT3. A large range of DEGs induced by swertiamarin could be regulated by JUN and STAT3.

Conclusion: Swertiamarin treatment led to significant changes in the expression of a variety of genes that modulate cell survival, cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and invasion. Moreover, most of these genes can be clustered into pathway networks such as PI3K, JUN, STAT3, which are predicted targets of swertiamarin. Further confirmation of these targets will reveal the anti-tumor mechanisms of swertiamarin and facilitate the development of swertiamarin as a novel agent for cancer prevention and treatment.

Ethanolic extract and ethyl acetate fraction of Coutoubea spicata attenuate hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and muscle damage in alloxan-induced diabetic rats subjected to resistance exercise training program

Gentianaceae family (such as Coutoubea spicata) contains iridoids and flavonoids with antidiabetic properties. However, there is no information available about the antidiabetic effects of C. spicata when combined with resistance exercise training (RET). This study evaluated the effects of the ethanolic extract (EE) and ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) of C. spicata on biochemical markers, muscle damage, and oxidative stress in diabetic rats submitted to RET. Alloxan-induced diabetic rats were distributed into 4 groups (each group, n = 8) treated with distilled water (TD), EE, EAF, or metformin and submitted to RET. Two groups without the disease (each group, n = 8) (sedentary control and trained control), as well as a sedentary diabetic group (n = 8) were included. Body weight and glycemia were evaluated weekly. After 30 days, lipid/lipoprotein profile, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, muscle damage ((creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)), and oxidative stress (malondialdehyde (MDA), sulfhydryl groups (SH), and ferric reducing antioxidant power) were evaluated. MDA and SH for pancreas, liver, heart, and muscle were evaluated. C. spicata extract and fraction combined with RET recovered body weight and reduced glycemia, muscle damage (CK: 36.83% and 21.45%; LDH: 49.83% and 68.55%), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (70.63%; 59.18%) and improved redox status (MDA: 50.33%, 39.74%; and SH: 53.97%; 76.41%), respectively, when compared with the TD group. C. spicata plus RET promoted anti-hyperglycemic, lipid-reducing, and antioxidant effects in diabetic rats. Novelty C. spicata presents anti-hyperglycemic and lipid-lowering effects potentiated by RET. C. spicata reduces muscle injury and increases antioxidant defense.

Swertiamarin decreases lipid accumulation dependent on 3-ketoacyl-coA thiolase

Natural compounds are important resources for drug discovery. Using Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) models, we screened active natural compounds with lipid lowering effects. Swertiamarin was found as a potent candidate to reduce lipid content in C. elegans. Using RNAi screening, we were able to demonstrate that kat-1 (ketoacyl thiolase-1) is necessary for the lipid lowering effect of swertiamarin. Furthermore, the activity of swertiamarin was verified in high fat diet induced obese mice. Consistent with the results in C. elegans, swertiamarin ameliorated high fat diet induced lipid deposition and hyperlipidemia. These results indicate that swertiamarin exerts lipid-lowering effects through kat-1 regulation and could serve as a possible therapeutic option to improve hyperlipidemia induced comorbidities.

Monoterpenes modulating cytokines - A review

Inflammatory response can be driven by cytokine production and is a pivotal target in the management of inflammatory diseases. Monoterpenes have shown that promising profile as agents which reduce the inflammatory process and also modulate the key chemical mediators of inflammation, such as pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The main interest focused on monoterpenes were to develop the analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs. In this review, we summarized current knowledge on monoterpenes that produce anti-inflammatory effects by modulating the release of cytokines, as well as suggesting that which monoterpenoid molecules may be most effective in the treatment of inflammatory disease. Several different inflammatory markers were evaluated as a target of monoterpenes. The proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines were found TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-5, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 IL-13, IL-17A, IFNγ, TGF-β1 and IFN-γ. Our review found evidence that NF-κB and MAPK signaling are important pathways for the anti-inflammatory action of monoterpenes. We found 24 monoterpenes that modulate the production of cytokines, which appears to be the major pharmacological mechanism these compounds possess in relation to the attenuation of inflammatory response. Despite the compelling evidence supporting the anti-inflammatory effect of monoterpenes, further studies are necessary to fully explore their potential as anti-inflammatory compounds.

A systematic review of the protective role of swertiamarin in cardiac and metabolic diseases

BACKGROUND

Swertiamarin, is a secoiridoid glycoside found in genera of Enicostemma Species (Enicostemma littorale and Enicostemma axillare) belonging to the family of gentianaceae, which has been reported to cure many diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, arthritis, malaria and abdominal ulcers. However, to the best of our knowledge, till date systematic studies to understand the molecular basis of cardiac and metabolic disease preventing properties of swertiamarin has not been reported.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present review aims to compile an up-to-date information on the progress made in the protective role of swertiamarin in cardiac and metabolic diseases with the objective of providing a guide for future research on this bioactive molecule.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on the swertiamarin was collected from major scientific databases (Pubmed, Springer, google scholar, and Web of Science) for publication between1974-2016. In this review, the protective role of swertiamarin on cardiac and metabolic diseases was discussed.

RESULTS

Swertiamarin reported to exhibit a wide range of biological activities such as anti-atherosclerotic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These activities were mainly due to its effect on various signaling pathways associated with cardiac remodeling events such as inhibition of NF-kB expression, LDL oxidation, apoptosis, inflammatory and lipid peroxidation markers and stimulation of antioxidant enzymes.

CONCLUSION

Sweriamarin exhibit a wide range of biological activities. This review presents evidence supporting the point of view that swertiamarin should be considered a potential therapeutic agent against cardiac and metabolic diseases, giving rise to novel applications in their prevention and treatment.

Antidepressant Activity of Enicostemma littorale Blume in Shp2 (Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase)-inhibited Animal Model of Depression

Background:

The objective of this study is to develop a new animal model based on signaling pathways to understand the pathophysiology, therapy of depression, and to investigate the antidepressant activity of Enicostemma littorale which is not yet established.

Methods:

Animal models of depression were raised by physical methods and administration of methyl isobutyl ketone (100 mg/kg b.w., i.p.,) and a protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, sodium orthovanadate (30 mg/kg b.w., i.p.,) to young Wistar rats. E. littorale aqueous extract (100 mg/kg b.w., oral) was administered. Forced swimming test (FST), biochemical, and histopathological parameters were performed with reference to fluoxetine (20 mg/kg b.w., oral) treatment.

Results:

High-performance thin-layer chromatography confirmed the presence of swertiamarin, a unique glycoside present in the Gentianaceae family. FST indicated high rates of immobility in depressed groups and low rates in plant extract-administered group with reference to fluoxetine. Biochemical assays indicated significantly (P < 0.05) increased levels of total protein, superoxide dismutase, triglycerides, and total serum cholesterol, whereas significant reduction (P < 0.05) of glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and lipid peroxidation in plant extract-administered groups in comparison to the depressed groups. Histopathological analysis indicated disorganized neuronal architecture during depression whereas rejuvenation of neuronal patterns was observed during treatment with plant extract and fluoxetine.

Conclusions:

This study shows that sodium orthovanadate induces depression in animals and also establishes the antidepressant activity of E. littorale.

Swertiamarin ameliorates oleic acid induced lipid accumulation and oxidative stress by attenuating gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis in hepatic steatosis

Swertiamarin, a bitter secoiridoid glycoside, is an antidiabetic drug with lipid lowering activity meliorates insulin resistance in Type 2 Diabetes condition. Therefore, the study was designed to explore the antioxidant and hypolipidemic activity of swertiamarin in ameliorating NAFLD caused due to hepatic lipid accumulation, inflammation and insulin resistance. Steatosis was induced in HepG2 cells by supplementing 1mM oleic acid (OA) for 24h which was marked by significant accumulation of lipid droplets. This was determined by Oil Red O (ORO) staining and triglyceride accumulation. Swertiamarin (25μg/ml) decreased triglyceride content by 2 folds and effectively reduced LDH release (50%) activity by protecting membrane integrity thus, preventing apoptosis evidenced by reduced cleavage of Caspase 3 and PARP1. We observed that swertiamarin significantly increased the expressions of major insulin signaling proteins like Insulin receptor (IR), PI(3)K, pAkt with concomitant reduction in p307 IRS-1. AMPK was activated by swertiamarin action, thus restoring insulin sensitivity in hepatocytes. In addition, qPCR results confirmed OA up-regulated Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein (SREBP)-1c and fatty acid synthase (FAS), resulting in increased fatty acid synthesis. Swertiamarin effectively modulated PPAR-α, a major potential regulator of carbohydrate metabolism which, in turn, decreased the levels of the gluconeogenic enzyme PEPCK, further restricting hepatic glucose production and fatty acid synthesis. Cumulatively, swertiamarin targets potential metabolic regulators AMPK and PPAR-α, through which it regulates hepatic glycemic burden, fat accumulation, insulin resistance and ROS in hepatic steatosis which emphasizes clinical significance of swertiamarin in regulating metabolism and as a suitable candidate for treating NAFLD.

Evaluation and quantitative analysis of different growth periods of herb-arbor intercropping systems using HPLC and UV-vis methods coupled with chemometrics

As a result of the pressure from population explosion, agricultural land resources require further protecting and rationally utilizing. Intercropping technique has been widely applied for agricultural production to save cultivated area, improve crop quality, and promote agriculture economy. In this study, we employed high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis) combined with chemometrics for determination and qualitative evaluation of several kinds of intercropping system with Gentiana rigescens Franch. ex Hemsl. (GR), which is used as an hepatic protector in local communities in China. Results revealed that GR in a Camellia sinensis intercropping system contained most gentiopicroside, sweroside, and total active constituents (six chemical indicators), whose content reached 91.09 ± 3.54, 1.03 ± 0.06, and 104.05 ± 6.48 mg g(-1), respectively. The two applied quantitative and qualitative methods reciprocally verified that GR with 2 years of growth period performed better in terms of quality than 1 year, collectively.

A Review of Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae) as a Traditional Medicinal Plant

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae), a popular medicinal herb indigenous to the temperate Himalayas is used in traditional medicine to treat numerous ailments such as liver disorders, malaria, and diabetes and are reported to have a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties. Its medicinal usage is well-documented in Indian pharmaceutical codex, the British, and the American pharmacopeias and in different traditional medicine such as the Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and other conventional medical systems. This ethnomedicinal herb is known mostly for its bitter taste caused by the presence of different bioactive compounds that are directly associated with human health welfare. The increasing high usage of Swertia chirayita, mostly the underground tissues, as well as the illegal overharvesting combined with habitat destruction resulted in a drastic reduction of its populations and has brought this plant to the verge of extinction. The increasing national and international demand for Swertia chirayita has led to unscrupulous collection from the wild and adulteration of supplies. The aim of this review is to provide a synthesis of the current state of scientific knowledge on the medicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, safety evaluation as well as the potential role of plant biotechnology in the conservation of Swertia chirayita and to highlight its future prospects. Pharmacological data reported in literature suggest that Swertia chirayita shows a beneficial effect in the treatment of several ailments. However, there is lack of adequate information on the safety evaluation of the plant. The pharmacological usefulness of Swertia chirayita requires the need for conservation-friendly approaches in its utilization. Providing high-quality genetically uniform clones for sustainable use and thereby saving the genetic diversity of this species in nature is important. In this regard, plant biotechnological applications such as micropropagation, synthetic seed production, and hairy root technology can play a significant role in a holistic conservation strategy. In addition to micropropagation, storage of these valuable genetic resources is equally important for germplasm preservation. However, more advanced research is warranted to determine the activities of bioactive compounds in vitro and in vivo, establish their underlying mechanisms of action and commence the process of clinical research.

Pharmacognosy of Enicostemma littorale: a review

Traditional medicine system of India comprised varieties of plants which are playing a significant role in curing diseases from ancient times. Among them, Enicostemma littorale blume (E. littorale) a perennial herb of the family Gentianaceae is cosmopolitan in occurrence in India. The bittery natured plant acts as a laxative, helps in curing fever, rheumatism, skin diseases, abdominal disorders, snake bite, obesity and helps to regulate blood sugar levels. The plant constituents have been reported for possessing antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiulcer, antiinflammatory, hypolipidaemic, hepatoprotective and hypoglycemic properties. This review provides a bird's eye view about geographical distribution, physicochemical parameters, phytoconstituents and pharmacological properties of E. littorale.

Acetylated and propionated derivatives of swertiamarin have anti-adipogenic effects

Objective:

To investigate whether the acetylated and propionated derivatives (LMP-09-1 and -2) of swertiamarin have anti-adipogenic effects.

Materials and Methods:

3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were grown in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) containing 10% calf serum; fully confluent cells were differentiated with insulin, dexamethasone, and 3-isobutylmethylxanthine in the presence and absence of LMP-09-1 and -2 (100 μg/mL) for 10 days. Control cells received same amount of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). On day ten, cells were analyzed for triglycerides accumulation and the expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, lipogenesis, and lipolysis. In another set of experiment, effects of LMP-09-1 and 2 were studied for isoproterenol induced lipolysis using fully mature adipocytes.

Results:

LMP-09-1 and -2 caused a significant (P < 0.001) reduction in intracellular triglycerides accumulation. Both LMP-09-1 and -2 significantly (P < 0.001) decreased the mRNA expression of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ and acetyl-CoA carboxylase-1, and increased isoproterenol induced lipolysis in adipocytes. LMP-09-1 induced lipolysis even in the absence of isoproterenol, and also showed a significant up-regulation of carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1α and hormone sensitive lipase (HSL) gene expression.

Conclusions:

These findings show that swertiamarin derivatives, LMP-09-1 and -2 have a potent anti-adipogenic effect.

Comparative pharmacokinetics of swertiamarin in rats after oral administration of swertiamarin alone, Qing Ye Dan tablets and co-administration of swertiamarin and oleanolic acid

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Qing Ye Dan is a well-known herbal drug that is widely used to treat viral hepatitis in the Yi and Hani minority regions in the Yunnan province of China.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An LC-MS/MS method was developed to determine the levels of swertiamarin in rat plasma. Swertiamarin and naringin (internal standard, IS) were extracted from rat plasma using solid-phase extraction (SPE) to purify the samples. The pharmacokinetics of the following different administration methods of swertiamarin in rats were studied: oral administration of swertiamarin alone, a Qing Ye Dan tablet (QYDT) and co-administration of swertiamarin and oleanolic acid, with each method delivering approximately 20mg/kg of swertiamarin. Non-compartmental pharmacokinetic profiles were constructed by using the software DAS (version 2.1.1), and the pharmacokinetic parameters were compared using an unpaired Student's t-test.

RESULTS

The results showed that the pharmacokinetic parameters Cmax, AUC0-∞, Vz/F and CLz/F were significantly different (P<0.05) among the three types of swertiamarin administration.

CONCLUSIONS

The data indicate that oleanolic acid and the other ingredients present in QYDT could affect the pharmacokinetic behaviour of swertiamarin in rats.

Swertiamarin: An Active Lead from Enicostemma littorale Regulates Hepatic and Adipose Tissue Gene Expression by Targeting PPAR- γ and Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Experimental NIDDM Rat Model

Enicostemma littorale (EL) Blume is one of the herbs widely used for treating and alleviating the effects of both type I and type II diabetes. However, lack of understanding of mechanism precludes the use of the herb and its molecules. In this study, we attempt to unravel the molecular mechanism of action of swertiamarin, a compound isolated form EL, by comparing its molecular effects with those of aqueous EL extract in alleviating the insulin resistance in type II diabetes. We further investigated hypolipidemic and insulin sensitizing effect of swertiamarin in experimentally induced noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in rats. Swertiamarin (50 mg/kg) and aqueous extract (15 grams dried plant equivalent extract/kg) were administered to rats orally for 40 days and tight regulation of serum glucose, insulin, and lipid profile was found in both groups. Their mode of action was by restoring G6Pase and HMG-CoA reductase activities to normal levels and restoring normal transcriptional levels of PEPCK, GK, Glut 2, PPAR-γ, leptin, adiponectin, LPL, SREBP-1c, and Glut 4 genes. This suggests that both treatments increased insulin sensitivity and regulated carbohydrate and fat metabolism. This is the first report on the role of SM in regulating the PPARγ-mediated regulation of candidate genes involved in metabolism in peripheral tissues in vivo.

Genetic and biochemical characterization of somatic hybrids between Bupleurum scorzonerifolium and Gentianopsis paludosa

Ultraviolet-irradiated protoplasts of Gentianopsis paludosa were fused with those of Bupleurum scorzonerifolium and 28 independent hybrid calli were identified, five of which later differentiated into plants. A genetic analysis of these calli and regenerated plants based on chromosome number, esterase, random amplified polymorphic DNA, and 5S rDNA spacer profiling showed that the majority of their nuclear genomes were represented by the recipient biparent B. scorzonerifolium. A restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the plastidial genomes confirmed that DNA from both biparents was present in some of the hybrids. The secondary metabolite composition of the hybrids was analyzed by a combination of high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The content of oleanolic acid in two of the hybrid lines was substantially higher than in the donor G. paludosa, while that of swertiamarin was equal to that in G. paludosa in two of the six hybrids analyzed. A number of both G. paludosa and B. scorzonerifolium specific compounds were detected in the three hybrids analyzed by GC-MS as were several not present in either of the biparents.

Preliminary study on the antimicrobial activity of Enicostemma littorale using different solvents

OBJECTIVE

To study the antimicrobial activity of Enicostemma littorale (E. littorale) using different solvents.

METHODS

Chloroform, methanol and acetone extracts of different parts of E. littorale (leaf, stem and root) were evaluated for antimicrobial activity using disc diffusion method against some gram-negative species such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pnemoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi and gram-positive species Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis and two fugal species viz., Aspergillus fumigates and Aspergillus flavus.

RESULTS

The chloroform extracts showed the highest antibacterial activity. Among leaf, stem and root extracts, the stem extracts showed maximum antibacterial activity. All of the used extracts had no significant antifungal activity against Aspergillus fumigates and Aspergillus flavus. The chloroform stem extract showed highest activity (about 20 mm inhibition zone) against Bacillus subtilis (at 500 mg/mL) followed by the methanolic stem extract which showed highest activity against the same organism. The lowest antibacterial activity was observed by the acetone leaf extract (about 8 mm inhibition zone) against Escherichia coli.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the study indicate littorale could also be a new source for antibiotics discovery.

Cardioprotective and antihypertensive effects of Enicostemma littorale Blume extract in fructose-fed rats

We investigated the protective effects of Enicostemma littorale Blume (EL) extract on hypertension and insulin resistance along with its associated cardiovascular complications in high fructose (HF) fed rats. For this, rats were divided among 4 groups: (i) control, fed laboratory chow; (ii) fed with a high level of fructose; (iii) fed with a high level of fructose plus E. littorale extract; and (iv) fed with a high level of fructose plus rosiglitazone (Rg). EL and Rg treatments were given simultaneously with HF diet. The results show that untreated HF-fed rats showed altered oral glucose tolerance, increased fasting insulin, and increased fasting glucose. These rats also exhibited hypertriglyceridemia, moderate hypertension, platelet hyperaggregability, decreased prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, altered vascular reactivity, and increased serum levels of enzymes (creatine kinase, type muscle-brain (CK-MB), aspartate aminotransferase (SGOT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and alanine aminotransferase (SGPT). This is the first demonstration of platelet hyperaggregation and prothrombotic alteration in HF-fed rats. HF-fed rats treated with EL showed improved insulin resistance, along with reduced hypertriglyceridemia, hypertension, platelet aggregability, blood coagulation, serum enzymes (CK-MB, SGOT, LDH and SGPT), and vascular reactivity. These effects of EL in HF-induced hypertensive rats might be associated with the suppression of hyperinsulinemia and hypertriglyceridemia, along with its antiatherogenic and antithrombogenic potential. These data indicate that the aqueous extract of EL has great therapeutic potential for the prevention and (or) management of insulin resistance and the associated hypertension.

Introgression of the heterologous nuclear DNAs and efficacious compositions from Swertia tetraptera Maxim. into Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. via somatic hybridization

Swertia tetraptera Maxim. is an important source of secoiridoid glucosides. To produce these pharmacologically valuable compounds heterologously in somatic hybrid cell lines, S. tetraptera protoplasts were irradiated with various doses of UV light and fused with protoplasts from a long-term cell line of Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. This recipient was chosen as the cell line is cytogenetically stable and fast growing; furthermore, protoplasts isolated from the cell line are readily regenerable. From a set of 86 putative hybrid calli, only two were able to regenerate viable green plants. The hybridity of the 19 of the 86 selections was revealed by a combined isozyme and RAPD analysis, supported by a karyotypic study based on genomic in situ hybridization (GISH). Clone I-3 contained 0.014% swertiamarin while the regenerants had 0.069% swertiamarin and 0.409% gentiopicroside while the III-4 plants contained only 0.015% gentiopicroside.

Anti-diabetic activity of swertiamarin is due to an active metabolite, gentianine, that upregulates PPAR-γ gene expression in 3T3-L1 cells

We have previously shown the anti-diabetic effects of swertiamarin; however, pharmacokinetic analysis showed that swertiamarin had a plasma half-life of 1.3 h. Gentianine is an active metabolite of swertiamarin that possesses a pharmacophoric moiety. The aim of this study was to explore the possibility whether the anti-diabetic effect of swertiamarin is due to gentianine. Swertiamarin treatment had no significant effect on adipogenesis, or the mRNA expression of PPAR-γ and GLUT-4; however, there was a significant increase in the mRNA expression of adiponectin. On the other hand, treatment with gentianine significantly increased adipogenesis, which was associated with a significant increase in the mRNA expression of PPAR-γ, GLUT-4 and adiponectin. These findings suggest, for the first time, that the anti-diabetic effect of swertiamarin is due to gentianine, an active metabolite of swertiamarin.

Beneficial effects of swertiamarin on dyslipidaemia in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats

Dyslipidaemia is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Lipid changes associated with diabetes mellitus are attributed to increases in free fatty acid flux, secondary to insulin resistance. In the present study, we have investigated the beneficial effects of swertiamarin on dyslipidaemic conditions associated with type 2 diabetes in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic rats. Swertiamarin (50 mg/kg, i.p.) administered once a day for 6 weeks resulted in significant (p < 0.001) reductions in serum triglycerides, cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein levels in diabetic animals as compared with diabetic control animals. Serum fasting glucose was significantly (p < 0.05) decreased, moreover, the insulin sensitivity index was significantly (p < 0.05) increased in swertiamarin treated animals. Overall the data suggest that swertiamarin has beneficial effects on diabetic associated complications such as dyslipidaemia.

Antihyperlipidemic activity of Ichnocarpus frutescens in triton WR-1339-induced and high-fat diet animals

CONTEXT

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) is used to treat diabetes and hyperlipidemia in folk medicine.

OBJECTIVE

The crude methanol extract and fractions of I. frutescens were investigated for antihyperlipidemic effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fresh leaves of I. frutescens were extracted with methanol and fractionated with hexane, benzene, ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol. The active acetone fraction was subfractionated, which resulted in active fraction 3. The antihyperlipidemic effects of the methanol extract and fractions of I. frutescens were studied in triton WR-1339-induced and high-fat diet (HFD) obese animals. Further, lipid absorption and excretion were studied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The methanol extract significantly reduced total cholesterol (TC) by 29.63% and triglyceride (Tg) by 51.10% at 400 mg/kg in triton WR-1339-induced animals and significantly reduced TC (27.81%) and Tg (37.03%) at 400 mg/kg in HFD animals. Fraction 3 showed significant reduction in TC (25.03%) and Tg (58.05%) at 200 mg/kg. Feeding of HFD consisting 3% of fraction 3 increased feces weight and Tg level in mice. Fraction 3, showed significant decrease in plasma Tg level at the second hour, after oral administration of the lipid emulsion to rats.

CONCLUSION

The observed properties apparently validate the folk medicinal use of this plant in amelioration of hyperlipidemia.

Antioxidant and hepatoprotective effect of swertiamarin from Enicostemma axillare against D-galactosamine induced acute liver damage in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The whole plant of Enicostemma axillare Raynal (Family: Gentianaceae) is used in variety of diseases in traditional Indian system of medicine including hepatic ailments.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Swertiamarin isolated from Enicostemma axillare Raynal was evaluated for antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Swertiamarin was isolated from successive ethyl acetate extract of the plant Enicostemma axillare belongs to the family Gentianaceae. The concentration of swertiamarin was determined by high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). The hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of swertiamarin (100 and 200mg/kg body weight) was carried out against d-Galactosamine (d-GalN) (200mg/kg body weight intraperitoneally i.p.) induced liver injury in rats.

RESULTS

Swertiamarin a secoiridoid glycoside was found to contain a major constituent of the extract. d-GalN caused significant hepatotoxicity by alteration of several hepatic parameters. It also caused significant lipid peroxidation and reduced the levels of antioxidant defense mechanisms. The treatment with swertiamarin at 100 and 200mg/kg body weight when administered orally for 8 days prior to d-GalN caused a significant restoration of all the altered biochemical parameters due to d-GalN towards the normal, indicating the potent antioxidant and hepatoprotective nature of swertiamarin.

CONCLUSIONS

Swertiamarin isolated from Enicostemma axillare possesses significant antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties against d-GalN induced hepatotoxicity given at 100 and 200mg/kg body weight orally for 8 days, which might be due to its in vitro antioxidant activity.