Yohimbine ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury in rats

Yohimbine Inhibits PDGF-Induced Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Migration via FOXO3a Factor

Yohimbine (YHB) has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and cardiac function-enhancing properties. Additionally, it has been reported to inhibit the proliferation, migration, and neointimal formation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) induced by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulation by suppressing the phospholipase C-gamma 1 pathway. However, the transcriptional regulatory mechanism of YHB controlling the behavior of VSMCs is not fully understood. In this study, YHB downregulated the expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins, such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), and cyclin E, by modulating the transcription factor FOXO3a in VSMCs induced by PDGF. Furthermore, YHB decreased p-38 and mTOR phosphorylation in a dose-dependent manner. Notably, YHB significantly reduced the phosphorylation at Y397 and Y925 sites of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and this effect was greater at the Y925 site than Y397. In addition, the expression of paxillin, a FAK-associated protein known to bind to the Y925 site of FAK, was significantly reduced by YHB treatment in a dose-dependent manner. A pronounced reduction in the migration and proliferation of VSMCs was observed following co-treatment of YHB with mTOR or p38 inhibitors. In conclusion, this study shows that YHB inhibits the PDGF-induced proliferation and migration of VSMCs by regulating the transcription factor FOXO3a and the mTOR/p38/FAK signaling pathway. Therefore, YHB may be a potential therapeutic candidate for preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis and vascular restenosis.

Protective effect of pregabalin on renal and renal endothelial damage in sepsis induced by lipopolysaccharide

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the protective effects of pregabalin (PRG) on kidney and renal endothelial damage in sepsis induced by Lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were randomly divided into three groups as control, LPS and LPS+PRG. Saline solution was administered 30 mg/kg orally and 5 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.) to the control group. LPS was applied as 5 mg/kg, i.p. to the LPS group. In the LPS+PRG group, PRG at 30 mg/kg orally and one hour before LPS administration, one hour later 5 mg/kg i.p. LPS was applied. Rats were sacrificed 6 hours after LPS administration.

RESULTS

White Blood Cell (WBC), granulocyte, Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, uric asid, Total Oxidant Status (TOS) and Oxidative Stress Index (OSI) significantly increased (p<0.05); platelets (PLT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and Total Antioxidant Status (TAS) significantly decreased in the LPS group compared to the control group (p<0.05). In the LPS+PRG group WBC, granulocyte, BUN, creatinine, uric asid, TOS and OSI significantly decreased (p<0.05); PLT, aPTT and TAS significantly increased compared to the LPS group(p<0.05). Histopathological examinations showed that kidney and renal endothelial damage in the LPS group decreased in the LPS+PRG group. Immunohistochemically IL1-β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α expressions in kidney tissue and Toll-Like Receptors-4 (TLR-4) and NF-κB expressions in the renal endothelial tissue significantly increased in the LPS group compared to the control group and significantly decreased in the LPS+PRG group compared to the LPS group (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Sepsis causes kidney and renal endothelial damage and PRG reduces this damage. Therefore PRG can be used in prophylactic treatment in sepsis, supported by more studies.

Alamandine treatment prevents LPS-induced acute renal and systemic dysfunction with multi-organ injury in rats via inhibiting iNOS expression

Sepsis is defined as the dysregulated immune response leading to multi-organ dysfunction and injury. Sepsis-induced acute kidney injury is a significant contributor to morbidity and mortality. Alamandine (ALA) is a novel endogenous peptide of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. It is known for its anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, but its functional and vascular effects on sepsis remain unclear. We aimed to investigate the effects of ALA, as a pre- and post-treatment agent, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced systemic and renal dysfunction and injury in the LPS-induced endotoxemia model in rats via functional, hemodynamic, vascular, molecular, biochemical, and histopathological evaluation. 10 mg/kg intraperitoneal LPS injection caused both hepatic and renal injury, decreased blood flow in several organs, and renal dysfunction at 20 h in Sprague-Dawley rats. Our results showed that ALA treatment ameliorated systemic and renal inflammation, reduced inflammatory cytokines, prevented the enhancement of the mortality rate, reversed vascular dysfunction, corrected decreased blood flows in several organs, and reduced renal and hepatic injury via inhibiting iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) and caspase expressions in the kidney. In addition, expressions of different ALA-related receptors showed alterations in this model, and ALA treatment reversed these alterations. These data suggest that ALA's systemic and renal protective effects are achieved through its anti-inflammatory, anti-pyroptotic, and anti-apoptotic effects on hemodynamic and vascular functions via reduced iNOS expression.

HYAL1 deficiency attenuates lipopolysaccharide-triggered renal injury and endothelial glycocalyx breakdown in septic AKI in mice

BACKGROUND

Renal dysfunction and disruption of renal endothelial glycocalyx are two important events during septic acute kidney injury (AKI). Here, the role and mechanism of hyaluronidase 1 (HYAL1) in regulating renal injury and renal endothelial glycocalyx breakdown in septic AKI were explored for the first time.

METHODS

BALB/c mice were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 mg/kg) to induce AKI. HYAL1 was blocked in vivo using lentivirus-mediated short hairpin RNA targeting HYAL1 (LV-sh-HYAL1). Biochemical assays were performed to measure the levels and concentrations of biochemical parameters associated with AKI as well as levels of inflammatory cytokines. Renal pathological lesions were determined by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. Cell apoptosis in the kidney was detected using terminal-deoxynucleoitidyl transferase-mediated nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Immunofluorescence and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining assays were used to examine the levels of hyaluronic acid in the kidney. The protein levels of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, endothelial glycocalyx, and autophagy-associated indicators were assessed by western blotting.

RESULTS

The knockdown of HYAL1 in LPS-subjected mice by LV-sh-HYAL1 significantly reduced renal inflammation, oxidative stress, apoptosis and kidney dysfunction in AKI, as well as alleviated renal endothelial glycocalyx disruption by preventing the release of hyaluronic acid to the bloodstream. Additionally, autophagy-related protein analysis indicated that knockdown of HYAL1 significantly enhanced autophagy in LPS mice. Furthermore, the beneficial actions of HYAL1 blockade were closely associated with the AMPK/mTOR signaling.

CONCLUSION

HYAL1 deficiency attenuates LPS-triggered renal injury and endothelial glycocalyx breakdown in septic AKI in mice.

Biological Activity of a 4-Hydroxy-Furanyl-Benzamide Derivative on Heart Failure

BACKGROUND

There are studies that suggest that some benzamide derivatives may exert effects on heart failure; however, their molecular mechanism is not very clear.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this research was to evaluate the biological activity of a 4-hydroxy-furanyl-benzamide derivative against heart failure translated as area infarct.

METHODS

Biological activity produced by 4-hydroxy-furanyl-benzamide derivative against heart failure was determinate using an ischemia-reperfusion injury model. In addition, the effects exerted by the 4-hydroxy-furanyl-benzamide derivative on left ventricular pressure (LVP) was evaluated in the absence or presence of some drugs such as yohimbine, butaxamine, methoctramine and L-NAME using a model of rat heart isolated.

RESULTS

The results showed that 4-hydroxy-furanyl-benzamide derivative decrease both infarct area and LVP. However, the effect produced by 4-hydroxy-furanyl-benzamide derivative on LVP was inhibited in the presence of both methoctramine and L-NAME.

CONCLUSIONS

All these data suggest that biological activity produced by 4-hydroxy-furanyl-benzamide derivative on left ventricular pressure is through of both M₂-muscarinic receptor and nitric oxide synthase enzyme activation. It is important to mention that this phenomenon results as a decrease of both infarct area and heart failure.

A literature perspective on the pharmacological applications of yohimbine

Introduction: Phytochemicals have garnered much attention because they are useful in managing several human diseases. Yohimbine is one such phytochemical with significant pharmacological potential and could be exploited for research by medicinal chemists. It is an indole alkaloid obtained from various natural/synthetic sources.Aims and Results: The research on yohimbine started early, and its use as a stimulant and aphrodisiac by humans has been reported for a long time. The pharmacological activity of yohimbine is mediated by the combined action of the central and peripheral nervous systems. It selectively blocks the pre and postsynaptic α₂-adrenergic receptors and has a moderate affinity for α1 and α2 subtypes. Yohimbine also binds to other behaviourally relevant monoaminergic receptors in the following order: α-2 NE > 5HT-1A>, 5HT-1B > 1-D > D3 > D2 receptors.Conclusion: The current review highlights some significant findings that contribute to developing yohimbine-based drugs. It also highlights the therapeutic potential of yohimbine against selected human diseases. However, further research is recommended on the pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, and drug safety requirements using well-designed randomized clinical trials to produce yohimbine as a pharmaceutical agent for human use.Key MessagesYohimbine is a natural indole alkaloid with significant pharmacological potential.Humans have used it as a stimulant and aphrodisiac from a relatively early time.It blocks the pre- and postsynaptic α2-adrenergic receptors that could be exploited for managing erectile dysfunction, myocardial dysfunction, inflammatory disorders, and cancer.

Yohimbine, an α2-Adrenoceptor Antagonist, Suppresses PDGF-BB-Stimulated Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation by Downregulating the PLCγ1 Signaling Pathway

Yohimbine (YOH) has antiproliferative effects against breast cancer and pancreatic cancer; however, its effects on vascular proliferative diseases such as atherosclerosis remain unknown. Accordingly, we investigated the inhibitory mechanisms of YOH in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) stimulated by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB, a major mitogenic factor in vascular diseases. YOH (5–20 μM) suppressed PDGF-BB-stimulated a mouse VSMC line (MOVAS-1 cell) proliferation without inducing cytotoxicity. YOH also exhibited antimigratory effects and downregulated matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 expression in PDGF-BB-stimulated MOVAS-1 cells. It also promoted cell cycle arrest in the initial gap/first gap phase by upregulating p27Kip1 and p53 expression and reducing cyclin-dependent kinase 2 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression. We noted phospholipase C-γ1 (PLCγ1) but not ERK1/2, AKT, or p38 kinase phosphorylation attenuation in YOH-modulated PDGF-BB-propagated signaling pathways in the MOVAS-1 cells. Furthermore, YOH still inhibited PDGF-BB-induced cell proliferation and PLCγ1 phosphorylation in MOVAS-1 cells with α2B-adrenergic receptor knockdown. YOH (5 and 10 mg/kg) substantially suppressed neointimal hyperplasia in mice subjected to CCA ligation for 21 days. Overall, our results reveal that YOH attenuates PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMC proliferation and migration by downregulating a α2B-adrenergic receptor–independent PLCγ1 pathway and reduces neointimal formation in vivo. Therefore, YOH has potential for repurposing for treating atherosclerosis and other vascular proliferative diseases.

TRPM7 promotes lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory dysfunction in renal tubular epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (S-AKI) has been reported to affect 30%-50% of all sepsis patients; this condition is associated with a notable fatality rate. Following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, the expression of transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 7 (TRPM7), a nonselective cation channel expressed by the renal tubular epithelial cells (RTECs) was found to be upregulated. We aimed to determine how TRPM7 functions in S-AKI.

METHODS

To establish an in vitro model of S-AKI, RTECs were treated with LPS. The effect of TRPM7 knockdown on cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress was studied. The binding site between Kruppel-like factor 2 (KLF2) and TRPM7 was predicted using JASPAR. The influence of KLF2 on the regulatory roles of TRPM7 in cells, as well as the effect of their knockdown on the MAPK signaling pathway, was investigated.

RESULTS

TRPM7 was upregulated in LPS-treated cells, and knocking improved cell viability, reduced LDH levels, and minimized apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress. KLF2 was shown to be associated with TRPM7 and its level decreased in LPS-treated cells. KLF2 knockdown increased TRPM7 expression and reversed the effects of TRPM7 knockdown in LPS-treated cells, including suppression of p38 MAPK, ERK1/2, and JNK activation.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our results show that TRPM7 is negatively regulated by KLF2 and promotes LPS-induced inflammatory dysfunction by activating the MAPK pathway in RTECs. The theoretical foundation for the prevention and management of S-AKI is laid out in this article.

A NIR fluorescent probe tracing norepinephrine exocytosis and depression occurrence at the cellular level

A NIR fluorescent probe tracing norepinephrine exocytosis and depression occurrence at the cellular level revealed that norepinephrine exocytosis rather than the inherent intracellular concentration was related with depression.

Maintaining homeostasis of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum with NSC228155 alleviates cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication of hospitalization with high mortality. Approximately 30% of patients receiving cisplatin, the first-line chemotherapy treatment, develop AKI. NSC228155 is a novel compound with potential anti-cancer and anti-bacterial effects. Its therapeutic efficacy in other diseases is unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effect of NSC228155 on cisplatin-induced AKI. The mice were consecutively treated with 2.5 mg/kg of NSC228155 for five days and injected with cisplatin (22 mg/kg) via intraperitoneal injection on day three. NSC228155 strikingly improved the renal function by decreasing the serum creatinine by 52.6% in the cisplatin-induced AKI mice model. Pathologically, NSC228155 profoundly alleviated the tubular damage in Periodic Acid-Schiff staining, and significantly reduced the expression of tubular injury markers and apoptosis in the cisplatin-injured mice kidneys. NSC228155 effectively restored the mitochondrial homeostasis by decreasing damaged mitochondria, activating signals for mitochondrial dynamics and recycling, and corrected mitochondrial dysfunction in ATP production and oxidative stress in the cisplatin model. Transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis on the mice renal cortex suggested that NSC228155 profoundly corrected energy metabolism, especially citrate cycle-related pathways, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the cisplatin-induced AKI kidneys. NSC228155 effectively inhibited ER stress induced by cisplatin or tunicamycin in mice kidneys and HK-2 cells. Co-treatment of NSC228155 with 4-phenylbutyrate or MnTBAP showed a similar therapeutic effect in AKI as the inhibitors or NSC228155 alone did, and corrected the mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress, respectively, indicating the crosstalk between ER and mitochondria played essential roles in the therapeutic effect of NSC228155 in AKI. Together, these results consistently demonstrated that NSC228155 alleviated cisplatin-induced AKI by restoring the homeostasis in mitochondria and ER, suggesting a therapeutic potential and perhaps a novel strategy for drug discovery.

Calcium dobesilate alleviates renal dysfunction and inflammation by targeting nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling in sepsis-associated acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a serious complication of sepsis that increases mortality and the risk of progression to chronic kidney disease. Oxidative stress and apoptosis are reported to exert critical function in the pathogenesis of sepsis-associated AKI. Calcium dobesilate (CaD) was reported to play a protective role in renal diseases. Therefore, we explored the antioxidant effect and potential mechanism of CaD in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced AKI in mice. We evaluated renal function (blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine (SCr)), histopathology, oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA)), inflammation cytokines, and apoptosis in kidneys of mice. The effect of CaD on NF-κB signaling was evaluated by Western blot. Our findings showed that CaD alleviated renal dysfunction and kidney injury, and also reversed upregulated MDA concentration and reduced SOD enzyme activity in AKI mice. Moreover, LPS-induced inflammatory response was attenuated by CaD. CaD treatment also reduced the apoptosis evoked by LPS. Additionally, CaD downregulated phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling components in LPS mice. Conclusively, CaD alleviates renal dysfunction and inflammation by targeting NF-κB signaling in sepsis-associated AKI.

The Programmed Cell Death of Macrophages, Endothelial Cells, and Tubular Epithelial Cells in Sepsis-AKI

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response syndrome caused by infection, following with acute injury to multiple organs. Sepsis-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) is currently recognized as one of the most severe complications related to sepsis. The pathophysiology of sepsis-AKI involves multiple cell types, including macrophages, vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and renal tubular epithelial cells (TECs), etc. More significantly, programmed cell death including apoptosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis could be triggered by sepsis in these types of cells, which enhances AKI progress. Moreover, the cross-talk and connections between these cells and cell death are critical for better understanding the pathophysiological basis of sepsis-AKI. Mitochondria dysfunction and oxidative stress are traditionally considered as the leading triggers of programmed cell death. Recent findings also highlight that autophagy, mitochondria quality control and epigenetic modification, which interact with programmed cell death, participate in the damage process in sepsis-AKI. The insightful understanding of the programmed cell death in sepsis-AKI could facilitate the development of effective treatment, as well as preventive methods.

Subcellular distribution of α2-adrenoceptor subtypes in the rodent kidney

Renal α2-adrenoceptors have been reported to play a role in the regulation of urinary output, renin secretion, and water and sodium excretion in the kidneys. However, the distribution of α2-adrenoceptor subtypes in the kidneys remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the localization of α2-adrenoceptor subtypes in rat kidneys using 8-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats. Immunofluorescence imaging revealed that both α2A- and α2B-adrenoceptors were expressed in the basolateral, but not apical, membrane of the epithelial cells of the proximal tubules. We also found that α2A- and α2B-adrenoceptors were not expressed in the glomeruli, collecting ducts, or the descending limb of the loop of Henle and vasa recta. In contrast, α2C-adrenoceptors were found to be localized in the glomeruli and lumen of the cortical and medullary collecting ducts. These results suggest that noradrenaline may act on the basement membrane of the proximal tubules through α2A- and α2B-adrenoceptors. Moreover, noradrenaline may be involved in the regulation of glomerular filtration and proteinuria through the induction of morphological changes in mesangial cells and podocytes via α2C-adrenoceptors. In the collecting ducts, urinary noradrenaline may regulate morphological changes of the microvilli through α2C-adrenoceptors. Our findings provide an immunohistochemical basis for understanding the cellular targets of α2-adrenergic regulation in the kidneys. This may be used to devise therapeutic strategies targeting α2-adrenoceptors.

Yohimbine hydrochloride inhibits benign prostatic hyperplasia by downregulating steroid 5α-reductase type 2

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a frequently encountered disease in older men that affects sexual function and is capable of causing lower urinary tract dysfunction. Unfortunately, current treatment options for BPH primarily seek to address the lower urinary tract dysfunction aspect of the disease and do not improve sexual function. Yohimbine has been effectively used for decades to treat erectile dysfunction. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the inhibitory effect of yohimbine on BPH and explore the associated underlying mechanisms. Thirty-six rats were randomly divided into the control, BPH, finasteride (1 mg/kg), and yohimbine (2, 4, and 8 mg/kg) groups. Except for the rats in the control group, those in the other groups were subcutaneously injected testosterone propionate (5 mg/kg/day) daily for a period of 4 weeks to establish BPH models. They were also administration the corresponding drug daily for a period of 6 weeks. After the treatments, in addition to determining prostate wet weight and index, the histopathological status of the prostate was observed, and the levels of testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, prostatic acid phosphatase, the prostate-specific antigen, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and steroid 5α-reductase were determined. Specifically, the administration of 2, 4, and 8 mg/kg yohimbine inhibited prostatic index increase by 46.7, 55.1, and 69.3%, respectively, in BHP rats. Further, yohimbine significantly reduced the levels of dihydrotestosterone, prostatic acid phosphatase, prostate-specific antigen, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and steroid 5α-reductase, suggesting that it exerts beneficial effects against BPH by modulating the steroid 5α-reductase pathway.

Inhibition of α2-adrenoceptor is renoprotective in 5/6 nephrectomy-induced chronic kidney injury rats

In the present study, we investigated the renoprotective effects of long-term treatment with yohimbine, an α2-adrenoceptor inhibitor, in a 5/6 nephrectomy-induced chronic kidney disease (CKD) rat model. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly allocated into the following groups: sham-operated, 5/6-nephrectomized (5/6 Nx), 5/6 Nx + low or high dose of yohimbine (0.3 or 3.0 mg/L in drinking water, respectively), and 5/6 Nx + hydralazine (250 mg/L in drinking water). The 5/6 Nx group presented with renal dysfunction, hypertension, noradrenaline overproduction, and histopathological injuries. Blood pressure decreased in both the yohimbine- and hydralazine-treated groups. Treatment with high dose of yohimbine, but not hydralazine, apparently attenuated urinary protein excretion and noradrenaline concentration of renal venous plasma. Renal fibrosis and upregulated fibrosis-related gene expression were suppressed by high dose of yohimbine. Furthermore, yohimbine, but not hydralazine, treatment ameliorated the urinary concentration ability. These findings suggest that long-term yohimbine treatment can be a useful therapeutic option to prevent the progression of CKD.

Yohimbine Ameliorates Temporomandibular Joint Chondrocyte Inflammation with Suppression of NF-κB Pathway

Local joint inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) osteoarthrosis (TMJOA). Yohimbine, an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonist, possesses anti-inflammatory properties; however, the ability of Yohimbine to protect against TMJOA-associated chondrocyte inflammation remains unclear. We conducted in vitro and in vivo analyses to investigate whether Yohimbine could ameliorate TMJOA-induced chondrocyte inflammation and to elucidate the mechanisms involved. Chondrocytes of TMJOA mice were stimulated with interleukin (IL)-1β or noradrenaline (NE), and the resulting production of inflammation-related factors was evaluated in the presence or absence of Yohimbine. Furthermore, two TMJOA mouse models were treated with Yohimbine and the therapeutic effect was quantified. NE (10^-6 M) triggered inflammatory cytokine secretion by TMJ chondrocytes, and Yohimbine suppressed IL-1β- or NE-induced IL-6 upregulation in TMJ chondrocytes with the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway inhibition. Yohimbine also ameliorated cartilage destruction in the TMJOA models. Interestingly, αmpT, a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor, reversed the effects of Yohimbine by activating the NF-κB pathway. Collectively, these findings show that Yohimbine ameliorated TMJ chondrocyte inflammation and the suppression of NF-κB pathway contributes to this effect.

Existing bitter medicines for fighting 2019-nCoV-associated infectious diseases

The sudden outbreak of COVID-19 has led to more than seven thousand deaths. Unfortunately, there are no specific drugs available to cure this disease. Type 2 taste receptors (TAS2Rs) may play an important role in host defense mechanisms. Based on the idea of host-directed therapy (HDT), we performed a negative co-expression analysis using big data of 60 000 Affymetrix expression arrays and 5000 TCGA data sets to determine the functions of TAS2R10, which can be activated by numerous bitter substances. Excitingly, we found that the main functions of TAS2R10 involved controlling infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites, suggesting that TAS2R10 is a key trigger of host defense pathways. To quickly guide the clinical treatment of 2019-nCoV, we searched currently available drugs that are agonists of TAS2Rs. We identified many cheap, available, and safe medicines, such as diphenidol, quinine, chloroquine, artemisinin, chlorpheniramine, yohimbine, and dextromethorphan, which may target the most common symptoms caused by 2019-nCoV. We suggest that a cocktail-like recipe of existing bitter drugs may help doctors to fight this catastrophic disease and that the general public may drink or eat bitter substances, such as coffee, tea, or bitter vegetables, to reduce the risk of infection.

miR-21 protects against lipopolysaccharide-stimulated acute kidney injury and apoptosis by targeting CDK6

Background

Septic acute kidney injury (AKI) causes a sharp deterioration of renal function, and it is a major reason for mortality in intensive care units. Although miR-21 has been proven to be dysregulated in patients with sepsis, the evidence is scarce concerning its role in mediating cellular apoptosis in AKI.

Methods

Mice were injected intraperitoneally with 10 mg/kg of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to establish septic AKI model, miR-21 mimic and inhibitor were used to manipulate the expression of miR-21, the creatinine levels were detected by a creatinine assay kit, the renal cell proliferation and apoptosis were detected by MTT assay, flow cytometry assay and acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) fluorescence staining, the renal function was evaluated by renal histology and tubular injury score, western blot analysis was used to detect the target protein levels. Several bioinformatics tools were performed to show the downstream target of miR-21, and further confirmed by luciferase reporter assay and caspase-3 activity assay.

Results

miR-21 silencing was able to promote renal function and decrease LPS-stimulated renal cell apoptosis in vitro and in vivo, and it could decrease the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3 activity. On the contrary, miR-21 overexpression had the opposite effects. Cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6) was confirmed as a target gene of miR-21 and was associated with renal cell apoptosis. Moreover, miR-21 was also found to be up-regulated in septic AKI.

Conclusions

Current evidences suggest that miR-21 has a potential application in treating septic AKI.