Anthocyanin ameliorates hypoxia and ischemia induced inflammation and apoptosis by increasing autophagic flux in SH-SY5Y cells

Optimized Synthesis and Antioxidant Activity of Anthocyanins Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and Petunidin-3-O-glucoside

The chemical synthesis of anthocyanins, especially delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and petunidin-3-O-glucoside, is preferable due to the challenges associated with their extraction and purification. However, the reported methods for the synthesis are scarce and intricate. Our research focused on exploring a one-step ester-to-ketone process and optimizing the ring formation reaction, simplifying and improving the overall synthesis strategy. Through these attempts, we were able to achieve higher production yields of delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and petunidin-3-O-glucoside. According to the results of DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP, the antioxidant activity of anthocyanins was increased with the number of B ring hydroxyl substituent. Additionally, both delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and petunidin-3-O-glucoside exhibited no cytotoxicity effects, highlighting their potential for safe application in various fields.

The Therapeutic Effects of Blueberry-Treated Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Ischemic Stroke

An ischemic stroke, one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, is caused by ischemia and hemorrhage resulting in impeded blood supply to the brain. According to many studies, blueberries have been shown to have a therapeutic effect in a variety of diseases. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether blueberry-treated mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (B-EVs) have therapeutic effects in in vitro and in vivo stroke models. We isolated the extracellular vesicles using cryo-TEM and characterized the particles and concentrations using NTA. MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (A-EVs) and B-EVs were round with a lipid bilayer structure and a diameter of ~150 nm. In addition, A-EVs and B-EVs were shown to affect angiogenesis, cell cycle, differentiation, DNA repair, inflammation, and neurogenesis following KEGG pathway and GO analyses. We investigated the protective effects of A-EVs and B-EVs against neuronal cell death in oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) cells and a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) animal model. The results showed that the cell viability was increased with EV treatment in HT22 cells. In the animal, the size of the cerebral infarction was decreased, and the behavioral assessment was improved with EV injections. The levels of NeuN and neurofilament heavy chain (NFH)-positive cells were also increased with EV treatment yet decreased in the MCAo group. In addition, the number of apoptotic cells was decreased with EV treatment compared with ischemic animals following TUNEL and Bax/Bcl-2 staining. These data suggested that EVs, especially B-EVs, had a therapeutic effect and could reduce apoptotic cell death after ischemic injury.

Research Progress on Active Ingredients and Product Development of Lycium ruthenicum Murray

Lycium ruthenicum Murray possesses significant applications in both food and medicine, including antioxidative, anti-tumor, anti-fatigue, anti-inflammatory, and various other effects. Consequently, there has been a surge in research endeavors dedicated to exploring its potential benefits, necessitating the organization and synthesis of these findings. This article systematically reviews the extraction and content determination methods of active substances such as polysaccharides, anthocyanins, flavonoids, and polyphenols in LRM in the past five years, as well as some active ingredient composition determination methods, biological activities, and product development. This review is divided into three main parts: extraction and determination methods, their bioactivity, and product development. Building upon prior research, we also delve into the economic and medicinal value of Lycium ruthenicum Murray, thereby contributing significantly to its further exploration and development. It is anticipated that this comprehensive review will serve as a valuable resource for advancing research on Lycium ruthenicum Murray.

Therapeutic potential of berries in age-related neurological disorders

Aging significantly impacts several age-related neurological problems, such as stroke, brain tumors, oxidative stress, neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and dementia), neuroinflammation, and neurotoxicity. Current treatments for these conditions often come with side effects like hallucinations, dyskinesia, nausea, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal distress. Given the widespread availability and cultural acceptance of natural remedies, research is exploring the potential effectiveness of plants in common medicines. The ancient medical system used many botanical drugs and medicinal plants to treat a wide range of diseases, including age-related neurological problems. According to current clinical investigations, berries improve motor and cognitive functions and protect against age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, berries may influence signaling pathways critical to neurotransmission, cell survival, inflammation regulation, and neuroplasticity. The abundance of phytochemicals in berries is believed to contribute to these potentially neuroprotective effects. This review aimed to explore the potential benefits of berries as a source of natural neuroprotective agents for age-related neurological disorders.

Sodium fluoride-induced autophagy of ameloblast-like cells via the p-ULk1/ATG13/LC3B pathway in vitro

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of sodium fluoride on the ameloblast and reveal the mechanism of dental fluorosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mouse ameloblast-like cell line (ALC) cells were treated with various concentrations of NaF, and subjected to Incucyte, fluorescence immunoassay, transmission electron microscopy, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), western blot for autophagy examination, alkaline phosphatase and alizarin red staining for mineralization after osteogenic induction.

RESULTS

NaF exerts a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on ALC cell growth. TEM and fluorescence immunoassay showed that 1.5 mM or higher concentrations of NaF could induce a fusion of lysosome and mitochondria, finally increasing the number of autophagosome. RT-qPCR and western blot showed that the upregulation of autophagy related gene 13 (ATG13), downregulation of phosphorylated Unc-51-like kinase 1 (p-ULK1) were found in NaF-induced autophagy of ALC cells. The knockdown of ATG13 could rescue it as well as the expression of p-ULK1 and LC3B. Besides, alizarin red staining showed that fluoride under these concentrations could promote the mineralization of ALC.

CONCLUSIONS

The data show that fluoride in higher concentration can induce autophagy via the p-ULk1/ATG13/LC3B pathway of ALCs than lower ones promote mineralization in vitro, which provides insight into the function of NaF in the autophagy and mineralization of ameloblast.

URB597 exerts neuroprotective effects against transient brain ischemia injury in mice by regulating autophagic flux and necroptosis

Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of death and disability, and medical treatments for ischemic stroke are very limited. URB597 is a potent and selective inhibitor of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). However, the effect of URB597 on ischemic stroke and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain little known. In this study, focal cerebral ischemia was induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. Our results showed that URB597 dose-dependently improved neurological function and reduced brain infarct volume and brain edema 24 h after brain ischemia. The most effective dose was 1 mg/kg and the therapeutic time window was within 3 h after ischemic stroke. To further investigate the underlying mechanism, necroptosis and autophagy flux were detected by Western blot and/or immunofluorescence staining with or without chloroquine, an autophagic flux inhibitor. Our results showed that URB597 promoted autophagic flux and reduced neuronal necroptosis after brain ischemia and these effects could be abolished by chloroquine. In addition, we found that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) antagonist GW6471 partly abolished the effect of URB597 against brain ischemia and URB597 upregulated the expressions of PPARα. In conclusion, URB597 exerts a neuroprotective effect in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and this effect may be related to its restoration of autophagic flux and inhibition of neuronal necroptosis. PPARα is involved in the neuroprotective effect of URB597. This study provides novel evidence that URB597 may be a promising agent for the clinical treatment of ischemic stroke.

The effects of flavonoids in experimental sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Sepsis is a host's dysregulated immune response to an infection associated with systemic inflammation and excessive oxidative stress, which can cause multiple organ failure and death. The literature suggests that flavonoids, a broad class of secondary plant metabolites, have numerous biological activities which can be valuable in the treatment of sepsis. This study aimed to review the effects of flavonoids on experimental sepsis, focusing mainly on survival rate, and also summarizing information on its mechanisms of action. We searched in the main databases up to November 2022 using relevant keywords, and data were extracted and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Thirty-two articles met the study criteria for review and 29 for meta-analysis. Overall, 30 different flavonoids were used in the studies. The flavonoids were able to strongly inhibit inflammatory response by reducing the levels of important pro-inflammatory mediators, for example, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1β, oxidative stress, and showed antibacterial and anti-apoptotic actions. The meta-analysis found an increase of 50% in survival rate of the animals treated with flavonoids. They appear to act as multi-target drugs and may be an excellent therapeutic alternative to reduce a number of the complications caused by sepsis, and consequently, to improve survival rate.

Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Stability of Natural and Enzymatically Acylated Anthocyanins: A Comparative Review

Anthocyanins (ANCs) are naturally occurring water-soluble pigments responsible for conferring red, blue, and purple colors to fruits, vegetables, flowers, and grains. Due to their chemical structure, they are highly susceptible to degradation by external factors, such as pH, light, temperature, and oxygen. Naturally acylated anthocyanins have proven to be more stable in response to external factors and exhibit superior biological effects as compared with their non-acylated analogues. Therefore, synthetic acylation represents a viable alternative to make the application of these compounds more suitable for use. Enzyme-mediated synthetic acylation produces derivatives that are highly similar to those obtained through the natural acylation process, with the main difference between these two pathways being the catalytic site of the enzymes involved in the synthesis; acyltransferases catalyze natural acylation, while lipases catalyze synthetic acylation. In both cases, their active sites perform the addition of carbon chains to the hydroxyl groups of anthocyanin glycosyl moieties. Currently, there is no comparative information regarding natural and enzymatically acylated anthocyanins. In this sense, the aim of this review is to compare natural and enzyme-mediated synthetic acylated anthocyanins in terms of chemical stability and pharmacological activity with a focus on inflammation and diabetes.

Purple Sweet Potato Powder Containing Anthocyanin Mitigates High-Fat-Diet-Induced Dry Eye Disease

Purple sweet potato (PSP) powder with anthocyanins possesses the ability to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. Studies have presumed a positive correlation between body fat and dry eye disease (DED) in adults. The regulation of oxidative stress and inflammation has been proposed as the mechanism underlying DED. This study developed an animal model of high fat diet (HFD)-induced DED. We added 5% PSP powder to the HFD to evaluate the effects and underlying mechanisms in mitigating HFD-induced DED. A statin drug, atorvastatin, was also added to the diet separately to assess its effect. The HFD altered the structure of lacrimal gland (LG) tissue, reduced LG secretory function, and eliminated the expression of proteins related to DED development, including α-smooth muscle actin and aquaporin-5. Although PSP treatment could not significantly reduce body weight or body fat, it ameliorated the effects of DED by preserving LG secretory function, preventing ocular surface erosion, and preserving LG structure. PSP treatment increased superoxide dismutase levels but reduced hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α levels, indicating that PSP treatment reduced oxidative stress. PSP treatment increased ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 and acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 levels in LG tissue, signifying that PSP treatment regulated lipid homeostasis maintenance to reduce the effects of DED. In conclusion, PSP treatment ameliorated the effects of HFD-induced DED through the regulation of oxidative stress and lipid homeostasis in the LG.

Charged multivesicular body protein 2B ameliorates biliary injury in the liver from donation after cardiac death rats via autophagy with air-oxygenated normothermic machine perfusion

Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) could provide a curative treatment to reduce biliary injury in donation after cardiac death (DCD) donor livers; however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In a rat model, our study compared air-oxygenated NMP to hyperoxygenated NMP and found that air-oxygenated NMP improved DCD functional recovery. Here, we found that the charged multivesicular body protein 2B (CHMP2B) expression was substantially elevated in the intrahepatic biliary duct endothelium of the cold-preserved rat DCD liver after air-oxygenated NMP or in biliary endothelial cells under hypoxia/physoxia. CHMP2B knockout (CHMP2B^-/-) rat livers showed increased biliary injury after air-oxygenated NMP, indicated by decreased bile production and bilirubin level, elevated biliary levels of lactate dehydrogenase and gamma-glutamyl transferase. Mechanically, we demonstrated that CHMP2B was transcriptionally regulated by Kruppel-like transcription factor 6 (KLF6) and alleviated biliary injury through decreasing autophagy. Collectively, our results suggested that air-oxygenated NMP regulates CHMP2B expression through the KLF6, which reduces biliary injury by inhibiting autophagy. Targeting the KLF6-CHMP2B autophagy axis may provide a solution to reducing biliary injury in DCD livers undergoing NMP.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Flavonoids in Common Neurological Disorders Associated with Aging

Aging reduces homeostasis and contributes to increasing the risk of brain diseases and death. Some of the principal characteristics are chronic and low-grade inflammation, a general increase in the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, and inflammatory markers. Aging-related diseases include focal ischemic stroke and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Flavonoids are the most common class of polyphenols and are abundantly found in plant-based foods and beverages. A small group of individual flavonoid molecules (e.g., quercetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and myricetin) has been used to explore the anti-inflammatory effect in vitro studies and in animal models of focal ischemic stroke and AD and PD, and the results show that these molecules reduce the activated neuroglia and several proinflammatory cytokines, and also, inactivate inflammation and inflammasome-related transcription factors. However, the evidence from human studies has been limited. In this review article, we highlight the evidence that individual natural molecules can modulate neuroinflammation in diverse studies from in vitro to animal models to clinical studies of focal ischemic stroke and AD and PD, and we discuss future areas of research that can help researchers to develop new therapeutic agents.

Potential implications of polyphenolic compounds in neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are common chronic diseases related to progressive damage to the nervous system. Current neurodegenerative diseases present difficulties and despite extensive research efforts to develop new disease-modifying therapies, there is still no effective treatment for halting the neurodegenerative process. Polyphenols are biologically active organic compounds abundantly found in various plants. It has been reported that plant-derived dietary polyphenols may improve some disease states and promote health. Emerging pieces of evidence indicate that polyphenols are associated with neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to overview the potential neuroprotective roles of polyphenols in most common neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and ischemic stroke.

Polyphenols for the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke: New Applications and Insights

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Currently, the main therapeutic strategy involves the use of intravenous thrombolysis to restore cerebral blood flow to prevent the transition of the penumbra to the infarct core. However, due to various limitations and complications, including the narrow time window in which this approach is effective, less than 10% of patients benefit from such therapy. Thus, there is an urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies, with neuroprotection against the ischemic cascade response after IS being one of the most promising options. In the past few decades, polyphenolic compounds have shown great potential in animal models of IS because of their high biocompatibility and ability to target multiple ischemic cascade signaling pathways, although low bioavailability is an issue that limits the applications of several polyphenols. Here, we review the pathophysiological changes following cerebral ischemia and summarize the research progress regarding the applications of polyphenolic compounds in the treatment of IS over the past 5 years. Furthermore, we discuss several potential strategies for improving the bioavailability of polyphenolic compounds as well as some essential issues that remain to be addressed for the translation of the related therapies to the clinic.

Chlorogenic Acid Prevents Microglia-Induced Neuronal Apoptosis and Oxidative Stress under Hypoxia-Ischemia Environment by Regulating the MIR497HG/miR-29b-3p/SIRT1 Axis

Background

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a polyphenolic compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. CGA has been shown to improve neuroinflammation. This study is aimed at elucidating the exact mechanism by which CGA reduces neuroinflammation.

Methods

Oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) was utilized to treat BV2 microglia and HT-22 hippocampal neurons to engineer an in vitro model of hypoxic ischemia reperfusion. The levels of inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-10) and oxidative stress factors (MDA, SOD, and GSH-PX) in microglia were determined by ELISA kits. The neuron proliferation was assessed by CCK-8 assay, and LDH kit was used to determine LDH release in neurons. The fluorescent dye DCF-DA was employed to measure ROS levels in neurons. Correlation of MIR497HG, miR-29b-3p, and SIRT1/NF-κB in neurons and microglia was determined by qRT-PCR. Expressions of inflammatory proteins (COX2, iNOS), oxidative stress pathways (Nrf2, HO-1), and apoptosis-related proteins (Bcl-2, Bax, caspase3, caspase8, and caspase9) in microglia or neurons were determined by western blot. The interactions between MIR497HG and miR-29b-3p, as well as between miR-29b-3p and SIRT1, were determined by dual luciferase assay and RIP assay.

Results

CGA attenuated OGD-mediated inflammation and oxidative stress in microglia and inhibited microglia-mediated neuronal apoptosis. CGA increased the levels of MIR497HG and SIRT1 and suppressed the levels of miR-29b-3p in BV2 and HT-22 cells. MIR497HG knockdown, miR-29b-3p upregulation, and SIRT1 inhibition inhibited CGA-mediated anti-inflammatory and neuronal protective functions. There is a targeting correlation between MIR497HG, miR-29b-3p, and Sirt1. MIR497HG sponges miR-29b-3p to regulate SIRT1 expression in an indirect manner.

Conclusion

CGA upregulates MIR497HG to curb miR-29b-3p expression, hence initiating the SIRT1/NF-κB signaling pathway and repressing OGD-elicited inflammation, oxidative stress, and neuron apoptosis.

Knockdown of circHECTD1 inhibits oxygen-glucose deprivation and reperfusion induced endothelial-mesenchymal transition

Ischemic stroke (IS) has become a cerebrovascular disease which seriously threatens the elderly people. It has been reported that circRNAs participate in multiple diseases, including IS. However, the role of circHECTD1 in IS remains largely unknown. To mimic IS in vitro, human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (HCMECs) were treated with oxygen glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R). Meanwhile, MCAO mouse model was established to detect the expression of circHECTD1 in IS. qRT-PCR and western blot were used to test gene and protein expressions, respectively. CCK-8 assay was used to investigate the cell viability. Moreover, cell migration and tube formation were assessed by transwell and tube formation assays. In addition, RIP and luciferase assay were performed to explore the association among circHECTD1, miR-335 and NOTCH2. CircHECTD1 was significantly upregulated in IS. OGD/R significantly induced EndoMT in HCMECs, while knockdown of circHECTD1 notably reversed this phenomenon. In addition, silencing of circHECTD1 remarkably reversed OGD/R-induced promotion of HCMEC tube formation and migration. Meanwhile, circHECTD1 upregulated the level of NOTCH2 through binding with miR-335. Furthermore, miR-335 inhibited the process of EndoMT in IS via targeting NOTCH2. In summary, circHECTD1 knockdown significantly alleviated EndoMT process in HCMECs via mediation of miR-335/NOTCH2 axis. Thus, circHECTD1 might act as a potential target against IS.

The natural (poly)phenols as modulators of microglia polarization via TLR4/NF-κB pathway exert anti-inflammatory activity in ischemic stroke

Increasing evidences suggest that inflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of stroke, a devastating disease second only to cardiac ischemia as a cause of death worldwide. Microglia are the first non-neuronal cells on the scene during the innate immune response to acute ischemic stroke. Microglia respond to acute brain injury by activating and developing classic M1-like (pro-inflammatory) or alternative M2-like (anti-inflammatory) phenotypes. M1 microglia produce pro-inflammatory cytokines to exacerbate neural death, astrocyte apoptosis, and blood brain barrier (BBB) disruption, while M2 microglia play the opposite role. NF-κB, a central regulator of the inflammatory response, was responsible for microglia M1 and M2 polarization. NF-κB p65 and p50 form a heterodimer to initiate a pro-inflammatory cytokine response, which enhances M1 activation and impair M2 response of microglia. TLR4, expressed on the surface of microglia, plays an important role in activating NF-κB, ultimately causing the M1 response of microglia. Therefore, modulation of microglial phenotypes via TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway may be a promising therapeutic approach for ischemic stroke. Dietary (poly)phenols are present in various foods, which have shown promising protective effects on ischemic stroke. In vivo studies strongly suggest that many (poly)phenols have a pronounced impact on ischemic stroke, as demonstrated by lower neuroinflammation. Thus, this review focuses on the anti-inflammatory properties of dietary (poly)phenols and discusses their effects on the polarization of microglia through modulating TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in the ischemic stroke.

Influencing Factors of Daytime Sleepiness in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome and Its Correlation with Pulse Oxygen Decline Rate

Objective

To explore the influencing factors of daytime sleepiness in patients with obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) and the correlation between daytime sleepiness and pulse oxygen decline rate in patients with severe OSAHS.

Methods

From January 2018 to April 2021, 246 consecutive patients with OSAHS diagnosed by polysomnography (PSG) in our hospital were selected. All patients were grouped according to the minimum nocturnal oxygen saturation and apnea hypopnea index (AHI). There were 33 cases in the no sleep hypoxia group, 34 cases in the mild hypoxia group, 119 cases in the moderate hypoxia group, and 60 cases in the severe hypoxia group. There were 30 cases in the simple snoring group, 55 cases in the mild OSAHS group, 48 cases in the moderate OSAHS group, and 113 cases in the severe OSAHS group. The Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) scores of each group were compared. All patients were grouped according to ESS score. Those with score ≥9 were included in the lethargy group (n = 118), and those with score ≤10 were included in the no lethargy group (n = 128). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to explore the influencing factors of daytime sleepiness in OSAHS patients. Pearson correlation analysis showed the correlation between ESS score and pulse oxygen decline rate in patients with severe OSAHS.

Results

The ESS score of the severe hypoxia group > the moderate hypoxia group > the mild hypoxia group > the no sleep hypoxia group. There was significant difference among the groups (F = 19.700, P < 0.0001). There were significant differences between the severe hypoxia group and other groups and between the moderate hypoxia group and the no sleep hypoxia group and the mild hypoxia group (P < 0.05). The ESS score of the severe OSAHS group > the moderate OSAHS group > the mild OSAHS group > the simple snoring group. There was significant difference among the groups (F = 19.000, P < 0.0001). There were significant differences between the severe OSAHS group and other groups and between the moderate OSAHS group and the simple snoring group (P < 0.05). Univariate analysis showed that BMI, neck circumference, snoring degree, total apnea hypopnea time, AHI, micro arousal index (MAI), oxygen saturation (CT90%), lowest oxygen saturation (LSaO2), and mean oxygen saturation (MSaO2) were the influencing factors of daytime sleepiness in OSAHS patients (P < 0.05). Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that AHI and CT90% were independent risk factors for daytime sleepiness in OSAHS patients (P < 0.05). Pearson correlation analysis showed that there was a positive correlation between ESS score and pulse oxygen decline rate in patients with severe OSAHS (r = 0.765, P < 0.0001).

Conclusion

OSAHS patients may be accompanied by daytime sleepiness in varying degrees, which may be independently related to AHI and CT90%. The degree of daytime sleepiness in patients with severe OSAHS may be closely related to the decline rate of pulse oxygen, which should be paid great attention in clinic.

Targeting autophagy in ischemic stroke: From molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics

Stroke constitutes the second leading cause of death and a major cause of disability worldwide. Stroke is normally classified as either ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke (HS) although 87% of cases belong to ischemic nature. Approximately 700,000 individuals suffer an ischemic stroke (IS) in the US each year. Recent evidence has denoted a rather pivotal role for defective macroautophagy/autophagy in the pathogenesis of IS. Cellular response to stroke includes autophagy as an adaptive mechanism that alleviates cellular stresses by removing long-lived or damaged organelles, protein aggregates, and surplus cellular components via the autophagosome-lysosomal degradation process. In this context, autophagy functions as an essential cellular process to maintain cellular homeostasis and organismal survival. However, unchecked or excessive induction of autophagy has been perceived to be detrimental and its contribution to neuronal cell death remains largely unknown. In this review, we will summarize the role of autophagy in IS, and discuss potential strategies, particularly, employment of natural compounds for IS treatment through manipulation of autophagy.

Anthocyanin-rich blueberry extracts and anthocyanin metabolite protocatechuic acid promote autophagy-lysosomal pathway and alleviate neurons damage in in vivo and in vitro models of Alzheimer's disease

OBJECTIVES

As the global aging phenomenon intensifies, the incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is gradually increasing. Diet appears to be an effective way to prevent and delay the progression of AD. Previous studies have found that cognitive impairment and neuronal damage were effectively alleviated by blueberry extract (BBE) in AD mice, but its mechanism is still unclear. The aims of this study were to detect the main anthocyanins of BBE; then to verify the protective effects of anthocyanin-rich BBE on hippocampal neurons and the promotion of autophagy; and finally to investigate the main protective effects and mechanisms of protocatechuic acid (PCA), a major metabolite of BBE, for promoting autophagy and thus playing a neuroprotective role.

METHODS

APP/PS1 mice were given 150 mg/kg BBE daily for 16 wk. Morphology of neurons was observed and autophagy-related proteins were detected.

RESULTS

Neuron damage in morphology was reduced and the expression of autophagy-related proteins in APP/PS1 mice were promoted after BBE treatment. In vitro, Aβ_25-35-induced cytotoxicity, including decreased neuron viability and increased levels of lactate dehydrogenase and reactive oxygen species, was effectively reversed by PCA. Furthermore, by adding autophagy inducers rapamycin and autophagy inhibitors Bafilomycin A1, it was verified that degradation of autophagosomes was upregulated and autophagy was promoted by PCA.

CONCLUSION

This study elucidated the mechanism of BBE for reducing neuronal damage by promoting neuronal autophagy and proved PCA may be the main bioactive metabolite of BBE for neuroprotective effects, providing a basis for dietary intervention in AD.

Protective effect of chronic administration of pelargonidin on neuronal apoptosis and memory process in amyloid-beta-treated rats

OBJECTIVE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with impaired cognitive skills and learning and memory dysfunctions.  It has been suggested that pelargonidin (PG), as an antioxidant agent, has a neuroprotective effect. PG could prevent damaging effects of amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposition. The aim of this study was to determine the chronic effect of PG on hippocampal neurons and memory processes in a rat model of AD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-eight male adult rats were divided into sham, AD, AD+PG (5 μg, intracerebroventricular), and PG (5 μg, intracerebroventricular) groups. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of Aβ peptides (6 μg) was done using stereotaxic surgery. ICV administration of PG or saline was performed daily for 28 consecutive days. Behavioral analysis was performed using the novel object recognition (NOR) and passive avoidance tests. Neuronal apoptosis was detected using TUNEL assay in the hippocampus.

RESULTS

The ICV injection of Aβ reduced step-through latency and discrimination index in behavioral tests (p<0.001). Aβ increased the number of apoptotic neurons (p<0.001). PG treatment decreased the time spent in the dark compartment and neuronal apoptosis in the AD+PG rats (p<0.001). PG increased the discrimination index in the NOR test (p<0.001). Although PG did not change behavioral variables, it decreased cell death in the PG group.

CONCLUSION

PG attenuated neuronal apoptosis and improved cognition and memory deficiency in AD rats. The protective effect of PG against Aβ may be due to its anti-apoptotic property. It is suggested that PG can be useful to treat AD.

Neuroprotective effects of aucubin on hydrogen peroxide-induced toxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells via the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

BACKGROUND

When redox balance is lost in the brain, oxidative stress can cause serious damage that leads to neuronal loss, in congruence with neurodegenerative diseases. Aucubin (AU) is an iridoid glycoside and that is one of the active constituents of Eucommia ulmoides, has many pharmacological effects such as anti-inflammation, anti-liver fibrosis, and anti-atherosclerosis.

PURPOSE

The present study aimed to evaluate the inhibitory effects of AU on cell oxidative stress against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced injury in SH-SY5Y cells in vitro.

METHODS

SH-SY5Y cells were simultaneously treated with AU and H₂O₂ for 24 h. Cell viability was measured by CCK-8. Additionally, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and cell apoptosis were measured by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The results showed that AU can significantly increase the H₂O₂-induced cell viability and the mitochondrial membrane potential, decrease the ROS generation, malondialdehyde (MDA), and increase glutathione (GSH) contents and the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. We also found that H₂O₂ stimulated the production of nitric oxide (NO), which could be reduced by treatment with AU through inhibiting the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein expression. In H₂O₂-induced SH-SY5Y cells, the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) content and cell apoptosis were significantly reduced by AU treatment through nuclear factor E2-related factor 2/hemo oxygenase-1 (Nrf2/HO-1) activation, inhibiting the expression of p-NF-κB/NF-κB and down-regulating MAPK and Bcl-2/Bax pathways.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that AU can reduce inflammation and oxidative stress through the NF-κB, Nrf2/HO-1, and MAPK pathways.

Special issue: Neuroinflammatory pathways as treatment targets in brain disorders autophagic regulation of neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke

Despite the high lethality and increasing prevalence, effective therapy for ischemic stroke is still limited. As a crucial pathophysiological mechanism underlying ischemic injury, neuroinflammation remains a promising target for novel anti-ischemic strategies. However, the potential adverse effects limit the applications of traditional anti-inflammatory therapies. Recent explorations into the mechanisms of inflammation reveal that autophagy acts as a critical part in inflammation regulation. Autophagy refers to the hierarchically organized process resulting in the lysosomal degradation of intracellular components. Autophagic clearance of intracellular danger signals (DAMPs) suppresses the inflammation activation. Alternatively, autophagy blunts inflammation by removing either inflammasomes or the transcriptional modulators of cytokines. Interestingly, several compounds have been proved to alleviate neuroinflammatory responses and protect against ischemic injury by activating autophagy, highlighting autophagy as a promising target for the regulation of ischemia-induced neuroinflammation. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanism underlying autophagic regulation of neuroinflammation in the central nervous system is less clear and further explorations are still needed.