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Jaikishan S, Lavainne M, Ravald HK, Scobbie K, Dusa F, Maheswari R, Turpeinen J, Eikemans I, Chen R, Rantala J, Aseyev V, Maier NN, Wiedmer SK. Fragment-based approach to study fungicide-biomimetic membrane interactions. SOFT MATTER 2024. [PMID: 39012330 DOI: 10.1039/d4sm00648h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
In this study, the molecular interactions of the allylamine-type fungicide butenafine and a set of substructures ("fragments") with liposomes mimicking biological membranes were studied to gain a better understanding of the structural factors governing membrane affinity and perturbation. Specifically, drug/fragment-membrane interactions were investigated using an interdisciplinary approach involving micro differential scanning calorimetry, open-tubular capillary electrochromatography, nanoplasmonic sensing, and quartz crystal microbalance. By incubating the drug and the fragment compounds with liposomes with varying lipid composition or by externally adding the compounds to preformed liposomes, a detailed mechanistic picture on the underlying drug/fragment-membrane interactions was obtained. The nature and the degree of ionisation of polar head groups of the lipids had a major influence on the nature of drug-membrane interactions, and so had the presence and relative concentration of cholesterol within the membranes. The in-depth understanding of drug/fragment-membranes interactions established by the presented interdisciplinary fragment-based approach may be useful in guiding the design and early-stage evaluation of prospective antifungal drug candidates, and the discovery of agents with improved membrane penetrating characteristics in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shishir Jaikishan
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Marine Lavainne
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Henri K Ravald
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Kieran Scobbie
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Filip Dusa
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Veveří 97, Brno 60200, Czech Republic
| | - Rekha Maheswari
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Jenni Turpeinen
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Ian Eikemans
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Rui Chen
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Julia Rantala
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Vladimir Aseyev
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Norbert N Maier
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Susanne K Wiedmer
- Department of Chemistry, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, POB 55, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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The effect of DSPE-PEG2000, cholesterol and drug incorporated in bilayer on the formation of discoidal micelles. Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 125:74-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2018.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Nimmano N, Somavarapu S, Taylor KM. Aerosol characterisation of nebulised liposomes co-loaded with erlotinib and genistein using an abbreviated cascade impactor method. Int J Pharm 2018; 542:8-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Mukherjee D, Kundu N, Chakravarty L, Behera B, Chakrabarti P, Sarkar N, Maiti TK. Membrane perturbation through novel cell-penetrating peptides influences intracellular accumulation of imatinib mesylate in CML cells. Cell Biol Toxicol 2017; 34:233-245. [PMID: 29046997 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-017-9414-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Chronic myeloid leukemia is a stem cell disease with the presence of Philadelphia chromosome generated through reciprocal translocation of chromosome 9 and 22. The use of first- and second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors has been successful to an extent. However, resistance against such drugs is an emerging problem. Apart from several drug-resistant mechanisms, drug influx/efflux ratio appears to be one of the key determinants of therapeutic outcomes. In addition, intracellular accumulation of drug critically depends on cell membrane fluidity and lipid raft dynamics. Previously, we reported two novel cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), namely, cationic IR15 and anionic SR11 present in tryptic digest of Abrus agglutinin. Here, the potential of IR15 and SR11 to influence intracellular concentration of imatinib has been evaluated. Fluorescent correlation spectroscopy and lifetime imaging were employed to map membrane fluidity and lipid raft distribution following peptide-drug co-administration. Results show that IR15 and SR11 are the two CPPs which can modulate membrane fluidity and lipid raft distribution in K562 cells. Both IR15 and SR11 significantly reduce the viability of CML cells in the presence of imatinib by increasing the intracellular accumulation of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devdeep Mukherjee
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Niloy Kundu
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Lopamudra Chakravarty
- Department of Haematology, Nil Ratan Sircar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, India
| | - Birendra Behera
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Prantar Chakrabarti
- Department of Haematology, Nil Ratan Sircar Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, India
| | - Nilmoni Sarkar
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Tapas Kumar Maiti
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
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Ourique AF, Chaves PDS, Souto GD, Pohlmann AR, Guterres SS, Beck RCR. Redispersible liposomal-N-acetylcysteine powder for pulmonary administration: development, in vitro characterization and antioxidant activity. Eur J Pharm Sci 2014; 65:174-82. [PMID: 25263567 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2014.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Liposomal dry powders of N-acetylcysteine (SD-NAC-Lip) were developed for pulmonary administration. Liposomes were prepared by reverse phase evaporation and spray dried using lactose (10%, w/w) as drying adjuvant. The powders were characterized according to process yield, drug content, residual water content, particle size distribution, morphology and redispersion behavior. In vitro aerosol performance was evaluated using an eight-stage Andersen Cascade Impactor. Moreover, in vitro antioxidant activity was determined by measuring thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) present in the lungs of healthy Wistar rats after induction of oxidation by iron/EDTA. The spray-drying process had a high yield (71%±2), drug content (mg/g) according to the expected value, moisture content below 9%, geometric mean diameter under 3μm with span value lower than 1. Spherical particles were observed by scanning electron microscopy. Liposomal dry-powders were able to recover the nanometric size of the original dispersion after their redispersion in aqueous medium, as shown by laser diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, the powders presented aerodynamic diameter of about 7μm and respirable fraction above 30%, indicating suitable properties for pulmonary use. The encapsulation of N-acetylcysteine in liposomes was essential to maintain its in vitro antioxidant activity after the drying process. In addition, the powder containing the encapsulated drug had better in vitro antioxidant activity than the liquid and solid formulations containing the non-encapsulated drug, which makes it a good candidate for the treatment of pulmonary diseases associated with oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Ferreira Ourique
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Paula Dos Santos Chaves
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Gabriele Dadalt Souto
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Adriana Raffin Pohlmann
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Departamento de Química Orgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Silvia Stanisçuaski Guterres
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ruy Carlos Ruver Beck
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanotecnologia Farmacêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Ye P, Zhang W, Yang T, Lu Y, Lu M, Gai Y, Ma X, Xiang G. Folate receptor-targeted liposomes enhanced the antitumor potency of imatinib through the combination of active targeting and molecular targeting. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:2167-78. [PMID: 24855354 PMCID: PMC4019625 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s60178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Imatinib inhibits platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and evidence shows that PDGFR participates in the development and progression of cervical cancer. Although imatinib has exhibited preclinical activity against cervical cancer, only minimal clinical therapeutic efficacy was observed. This poor therapeutic efficacy may be due to insufficient drug delivery to the tumor cells and plasma protein binding. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore a novel folate receptor (FR)-targeted delivery system via imatinib-loaded liposomes to enhance drug delivery to tumor cells and to reduce plasma protein binding. Methods Imatinib was remote-loaded into FR-targeted liposomes which were prepared by thin film hydration followed by polycarbonate membrane extrusion. Encapsulation efficiency, mean size diameter, and drug retention were characterized and cellular uptake, cell cytotoxicity, and cell apoptosis on cervical cancer HeLa cells were evaluated. Comparative pharmacokinetic studies were also carried out with FR-targeted imatinib liposomes, simple imatinib liposomes, and free imatinib. Results High encapsulation efficiency (>90%), appropriate mean particle size (143.5 nm), and zeta potential (−15.97 mV) were obtained for FR-targeted imatinib liposomes. The drug release profile showed minimal imatinib leakage (<5%) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at pH =7.4 within 72 hours of incubation, while more leakage (>25%) was observed in PBS at pH =5.5. This indicates that these liposomes possess a certain degree of pH sensitivity. Cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that the FR-targeted imatinib liposomes promoted a six-fold IC50 reduction on the non-targeted imatinib liposomes from 910 to 150 μM. In addition, FR-targeted imatinib liposomes enhanced HeLa cell apoptosis in vitro compared to the non-targeted imatinib liposomes. Pharmacokinetic parameters indicated that both targeted and non-targeted liposomes exhibited long circulation properties in Kunming mice. Conclusion These findings indicate that the nano-sized FR-targeted PDGFR antagonist imatinib liposomes may constitute a promising strategy in cervical cancer therapy through the combination of active targeting and molecular targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Ye
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China ; Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Wendian Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Tan Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yao Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Miao Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongkang Gai
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangya Xiang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
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Budai L, Kaszás N, Gróf P, Lenti K, Maghami K, Antal I, Klebovich I, Petrikovics I, Budai M. Liposomes for topical use: a physico-chemical comparison of vesicles prepared from egg or soy lecithin. Sci Pharm 2013; 81:1151-66. [PMID: 24482779 PMCID: PMC3867246 DOI: 10.3797/scipharm.1305-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Developments in nanotechnology and in the formulation of liposomal systems provide the opportunity for cosmetic dermatology to design novel delivery systems. Determination of their physico-chemical parameters has importance when developing a nano-delivery system. The present study highlights some technological aspects/characteristics of liposomes formulated from egg or soy lecithins for topical use. Alterations in the pH, viscosity, surface tension, and microscopic/macroscopic appearance of these vesicular systems were investigated. The chemical composition of the two types of lecithin was checked by mass spectrometry. Caffeine, as a model molecule, was encapsulated into multilamellar vesicles prepared from the two types of lecithin: then zeta potential, membrane fluidity, and encapsulation efficiency were compared. According to our observations, samples prepared from the two lecithins altered the pH in opposite directions: egg lecithin increased it while soy lecithin decreased it with increased lipid concentration. Our EPR spectroscopic results showed that the binding of caffeine did not change the membrane fluidity in the temperature range of possible topical use (measured between 2 and 50 °C). Combining our results on encapsulation efficiency for caffeine (about 30% for both lecithins) with those on membrane fluidity data, we concluded that the interaction of caffeine with the liposomal membrane does not change the rotational motion of the lipid molecules close to the head group region. In conclusion, topical use of egg lecithin for liposomal formulations can be preferred if there are no differences in the physico-chemical properties due to the encapsulated drugs, because the physiological effects of egg lecithin vesicles on skin are significantly better than that of soy lecithin liposomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lívia Budai
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmaceutics, Hőgyes E. u. 7., H-1092, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Nóra Kaszás
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmaceutics, Hőgyes E. u. 7., H-1092, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Pál Gróf
- Semmelweis University, Department of Biophysics and Radiation Biology, Tűzoltó u. 37-47., H-1094, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katalin Lenti
- Semmelweis University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Morphology and Physiology, Vas u. 17, H-1088, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katayoon Maghami
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmaceutics, Hőgyes E. u. 7., H-1092, Budapest, Hungary
| | - István Antal
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmaceutics, Hőgyes E. u. 7., H-1092, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Imre Klebovich
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmaceutics, Hőgyes E. u. 7., H-1092, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ilona Petrikovics
- Sam Houston State University, Department of Chemistry, TX-77340, Huntsville, USA
| | - Marianna Budai
- Semmelweis University, Department of Pharmaceutics, Hőgyes E. u. 7., H-1092, Budapest, Hungary
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Dragicevic-Curic N, Friedrich M, Petersen S, Scheglmann D, Douroumis D, Plass W, Fahr A. Assessment of fluidity of different invasomes by electron spin resonance and differential scanning calorimetry. Int J Pharm 2011; 412:85-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2011] [Accepted: 04/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Mendonça LS, Moreira JN, de Lima MCP, Simões S. Co-encapsulation of anti-BCR-ABL siRNA and imatinib mesylate in transferrin receptor-targeted sterically stabilized liposomes for chronic myeloid leukemia treatment. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 107:884-93. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.22858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Petrikovics I, Budai M, Baskin SI, Rockwood GA, Childress J, Budai L, Gróf P, Klebovich I, Szilasi M. Characterization of liposomal vesicles encapsulating rhodanese for cyanide antagonism. Drug Deliv 2010; 16:312-9. [PMID: 19606945 DOI: 10.1080/10717540903003711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The major mechanism of removing cyanide from the body is its enzymatic conversion by a sulfurtransferase, e.g. rhodanese, to the less toxic thiocyanate in the presence of a sulfur donor. Earlier results demonstrated that externally administered encapsulated rhodanese significantly enhances the in vivo efficacy of the given sulfur donor. Present studies are focused on liposomal carrier systems encapsulating rhodanese. Physicochemical properties, e.g. membrane rigidity, size distribution, surface potential, osmolarity, and viscosity, were determined for various liposomal lipid compositions and hydrating buffers to establish in vitro stability and in vivo fate. Lipid composition was also optimized to achieve maximum encapsulation efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Petrikovics
- Sam Houston State University, Department of Chemistry, Huntsville, Texas, TX 77341, USA.
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Diculescu VC, Chiorcea-Paquim AM, Tugulea L, Vivan M, Oliveira-Brett AM. Interaction of imatinib with liposomes: Voltammetric and AFM characterization. Bioelectrochemistry 2009; 74:278-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2008.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Revised: 10/15/2008] [Accepted: 10/15/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Jia Y, Joly H, Omri A. Liposomes as a carrier for gentamicin delivery: Development and evaluation of the physicochemical properties. Int J Pharm 2008; 359:254-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2008.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2008] [Revised: 03/21/2008] [Accepted: 03/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Flaten GE, Skar M, Luthman K, Brandl M. Drug permeability across a phospholipid vesicle based barrier: 3. Characterization of drug–membrane interactions and the effect of agitation on the barrier integrity and on the permeability. Eur J Pharm Sci 2007; 30:324-32. [PMID: 17204409 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2006.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2006] [Revised: 10/19/2006] [Accepted: 11/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we reported on the development and structural characterization of a phospholipid vesicle based barrier useful for medium throughput screening of passive drug permeability. Here, we investigate the physical and functional integrity of the phospholipid vesicle based barriers to agitation by stirring or shaking, and whether agitation affects drug permeability of sulpiride, metoprolol and testosterone. In addition, three drugs (caffeine, naproxen and sulphasalazine) which were shown in a previous study to affect the electrical resistance of the barriers, were investigated for their influence on the permeability of a simultaneously applied hydrophilic marker (calcein), and on the thermotropic phase transition of the phospholipid bilayers using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Electrical resistance measurements indicated that the barriers should withstand shaking speeds up to 150rpm without losing their integrity, but significant release of phospholipids from the membrane barriers to the donor and acceptor chambers was observed under agitation >or=150rpm. When using agitation up to 100rpm no increase in permeability was observed for sulpiride, metoprolol and testosterone. The phospholipid vesicle-based barrier thus differ from other permeability models in that agitation does not lead to an increase in permeability, not even for highly lipophilic drugs such as testosterone. This is explained by the different morphology of the vesicle-based barrier which is containing a 100microm thick layer of mostly aqueous compartments immobilised within a matrix of phospholipids vesicles. Sulphasalazine and naproxen were shown to decrease the electrical resistance and increase the permeability of the hydrophilic marker calcein. The DSC experiments showed that these two drugs probably interact with the head groups of the phospholipids. In contrast, caffeine gave an increase in electrical resistance and a decrease in permeability of calcein. From the DSC experiments no signs of interaction of caffeine with the phospholipid bilayer could be observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gøril Eide Flaten
- University of Tromsø, Institute of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics & Biopharmaceutics, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
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