In situ formation of graphene/biofilm composites for enhanced oxygen reduction in biocathode microbial fuel cells

Carbon Fibers for Bioelectrochemical: Precursors, Bioelectrochemical System, and Biosensors

Abstract

Carbon fibers (CFs) demonstrate a range of excellent properties including (but not limited to) microscale diameter, high hardness, high strength, light weight, high chemical resistance, and high temperature resistance. Therefore, it is necessary to summarize the application market of CFs. CFs with good physical and chemical properties stand out among many materials. It is believed that highly fibrotic CFs will play a crucial role. This review first introduces the precursors of CFs, such as polyacrylonitrile, bitumen, and lignin. Then this review introduces CFs used in BESs, such as electrode materials and modification strategies of MFC, MEC, MDC, and other cells in a large space. Then, CFs in biosensors including enzyme sensor, DNA sensor, immune sensor and implantable sensor are summarized. Finally, we discuss briefly the challenges and research directions of CFs application in BESs, biosensors and more fields.

Highlights

CF is a new-generation reinforced fiber with high hardness and strength.Summary precursors from different sources of CFs and their preparation processes.Introduction of the application and modification methods of CFs in BESs and biosensor.Suggest the challenges in the application of CFs in the field of bio-electrochemistry.Propose the prospective research directions for CFs.

Graphical abstract

A review on graphene / graphene oxide supported electrodes for microbial fuel cell applications: Challenges and prospects

Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) has gained great interest as an alternative green technology for bioenergy generation along with reduced sludge production, nutrient recovery, removal of COD and color, etc. during wastewater treatment. However, the MFC has several challenges for real-time applications due to less power output and high ohmic resistance and fabrication (electrode and membrane) cost. Several kinds of research have been carried out to increase energy production by reducing various losses associated with electrodes in the MFC. Though, carbonaceous electrodes (carbon and graphite) are the key materials for the anode and cathode side, since these have a higher surface area, good biocompatibility, low cost, and good mechanical strength. Graphene or graphene oxide-based nanocomposite can be an ideal substitute for electrode modifications and an alternative for an expensive anode and cathode catalyst in MFC. Graphene oxide synthesis from waste material such as waste biomass, agricultural, plastic waste, etc. is added advantages of minimizing the cost of the electrodes. But, the synthesis of graphene is quite expensive and has limitations in economic feasibility for bioelectricity production in MFC. Hence, the present review deals with the anode and cathode electrode modification with graphene-based nanocomposites, synthesis of graphene/graphene oxide from various raw materials, and its application in MFC. The current challenges and future outlook on graphene-based composites on MFC performance are also discussed.

A short review of graphene in the microbial electrosynthesis of biochemicals from carbon dioxide

Microbial electrosynthesis (MES) is a potential energy transformation technology for the reduction of the greenhouse gas carbon oxide (CO2) into commercial chemicals.

Recent progress of graphene based nanomaterials in bioelectrochemical systems

The application of graphene (Gr) to microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and microbial electrolysis cell (MECs) is considered a very promising approach in terms of enhancing their performance. The superior Gr properties of high electrical and thermal conductivities, along with: superior specific surface area, high electron mobility, and mechanical strength, are the key features that endorse this. Factors impeding the advancement of a microbial fuel cell into commercialization involve primarily the cost of their components, and their production on a small scale. Gr with such outstanding characteristics can help mitigate these challenges, when used as electrode material. The application of Gr as an anode material improves the efficiency of electron transfer and bacterial attachment. When used as a cathode material, it supports the oxygen reduction reaction. This investigation, presents a thorough analysis of the feasibility of Gr as an electrode material in both MFC and MEC applications - based on experimental results from the investigation. Current technological advancements in the implementation of Gr in MFC and MEC are also highlighted in this review. To summarise, the investigation exposes critical issues impeding the advancement of microbial fuel cells, and proposes possible solutions to mitigate these challenges.

Bacterial community structure and gene function prediction in response to long-term running of dual graphene modified bioelectrode bioelectrochemical systems

This work studied bacterial community structure and gene function prediction in long-term running of dual graphene modified bioelectrode bioelectrochemical systems (LT D-GM-BE BES, 2 year). The maximum power density of LT D-GM-BE BES was 99.03 ± 3.64 mW/m², which was 3.66 times of dual control BES (D-C-BE BES), and the transfer resistance of LT GM-BE was just approximately 1/4 of control bioelectrode (C-BE). Proteobacteria and Firmicutes were dominant bacteria in long-term modified bioanode (LT GM-BA, 30.03% and 45.64%), and in long-term modified biocathode (LT GM-BC) was Armatimonadetes (47.14%) in phylum level. The dominant bacteria in LT GM-BA was Clostridium (30.56%), in GM-BC was Chthonomonas (47.14%) in genus level. Gene function related with substrate, energy metabolism and environmental adaptation were enriched. LT GM-BE was tended to enrich dominant bacteria and enrich gene to adapt to micro-environmental changes. This study would provide metagenomics information for long-term running of BES in future.

Interaction between Biocompatible Graphene Oxide and Live Shewanella in the Self-Assembled Hydrogel: The Role of Physicochemical Properties

Understanding the interaction of graphene materials with bacterial cells is crucial for exploiting their environmental applications. Meanwhile, knowledge on the mechanism of graphene oxide (GO) action to bacteria is still incomplete. This study focused on the inter-relationship of biocompatible GO and the well-known dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria Shewanella, in view of the biographene hydrogel (BGH), a self-assembly of GO and live bacteria. The results showed that, among various inter-related physicochemical properties of GO, the sheet area determined the bacterial survival and the gelation potential with the same Shewanella strain. For the biocompatible GO sheet above 0.30 μm², the larger the GO, the higher the speed of BGH assembling. Only 22 h was needed to obtain BGH using GO with an average area of 1.83 μm² (maximum in this study). The GO oxidation degree was found to be another critical factor affecting whether BGH formed or not, with a referential threshold of C/O > 1.75. Finally, surface force of GO was detected and correlated with the bacterial adhesion behavior for the first time, confirming that the large GO in the low oxidation state has high resultant force to attract bacteria. All these findings pave a promising way to develop a GO-bacteria complex like BGH to treat industrial wastewater in the future.

Bifunctional cathode using a biofilm and Pt/C catalyst for simultaneous electricity generation and nitrification in microbial fuel cells

Biofouling frequently causes catalyst deterioration at the cathode of microbial fuel cells (MFCs). A biofilm-covered Pt/C cathode (BPC) was fabricated via in situ cultivation of a biofilm on a Pt/C cathode (PC) in a dual-chambered MFC, which enables effective removal of NH4+-N and copious generation of electricity. Experimental results show 99% NH4+-N removal by the nitrifying bacteria that constitute 35.7% of all microorganisms on the BPC and a maximum BPC-MFC power density of 0.97 W/m2, which is comparable to that of PC-MFCs (0.99 W/m2). BPC biofilm size is restricted by the limited amount of organic material in the cathode chamber, which constrains the biomass to less than 0.3 g protein /m2. The bifunctional-cathode equipped MFC shows great promise as an energy-saving technology for wastewater treatment in the future.

Biohybrid Cathode in Single Chamber Microbial Fuel Cell

The aim of this work is to investigate the properties of biofilms, spontaneously grown on cathode electrodes of single-chamber microbial fuel cells, when used as catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). To this purpose, a comparison between two sets of different carbon-based cathode electrodes is carried out. The first one (Pt-based biocathode) is based on the proliferation of the biofilm onto a Pt/C layer, leading thus to the creation of a biohybrid catalyst. The second set of electrodes (Pt-free biocathode) is based on a bare carbon-based material, on which biofilm grows and acts as the sole catalyst for ORR. Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) characterization confirmed better performance when the biofilm is formed on both Pt-based and Pt-free cathodes, with respect to that obtained by biofilm-free cathodes. To analyze the properties of spontaneously grown cathodic biofilms on carbon-based electrodes, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is employed. This study demonstrates that the highest power production is reached when aerobic biofilm acts as a catalyst for ORR in synergy with Pt in the biohybrid cathode.

Facile fabrication of carbon brush with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) for decreasing resistance and accelerating pollutants removal in bio-electrochemical systems

Low electrode resistance is crucial for achieving efficient reactions in bio-electrochemical system (BES), especially considering the factors of BES scaling-up and microbial effects. Graphene has revealed a cornucopia of potential applications due to its high conductivity and extraordinary electrochemical properties. Here, significant reduction of electrode resistance and increment of electrochemical activity were achieved by fabricating the three-dimensional carbon brush using reduced graphene oxide (rGO/carbon brush) through one-step electro-deposition without any binder. The rGO/carbon brush was employed as cathode in BES equipped with bio-anode for azo compound (AO7) removal. The charge transfer resistances of cathode part and whole cell were decreased by 89% and 65%, respectively. The reactor showed quickly start-up within 48 h with peak cycle current six fold increase relative to the control. AO7 decolorization efficiency reached 91.1 ± 0.1% at 4 h and 97.6 ± 0.4% at 6 h. Effective decolorization of AO7 was at rate up to 650.7 g AO7/m³·h. The results indicated that the advantages of graphene and three-dimensional carbon brush successfully improved the overall performance of BES and enhanced refractory pollutants removal when applied to specific wastewater.

Enhance wastewater biological treatment through the bacteria induced graphene oxide hydrogel

The interaction between bacteria and graphene-family materials like pristine graphene, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is such an elusive issue that its implication in environmental biotechnology is unclear. Herein, two kinds of self-assembled bio-rGO-hydrogels (BGHs) were prepared by cultivating specific Shewanella sp. strains with GO solution for the first time. The microscopic examination by SEM, TEM and CLSM indicated a porous 3D structure of BGHs, in which live bacteria firmly anchored and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) abundantly distributed. Spectra of XRD, FTIR, XPS and Raman further proved that GO was reduced to rGO by bacteria along with the gelation process, which suggests a potential green technique to produce graphene. Based on the characterization results, four mechanisms for the BGH formation were proposed, i.e., stacking, bridging, rolling and cross-linking of rGO sheets, through the synergistic effect of activities and EPS from special bacteria. More importantly, the BGHs obtained in this study were found able to achieve unique cleanup performance that the counterpart free bacteria could not fulfill, as exemplified in Congo red decolorization and Cr(VI) bioreduction. These findings therefore enlighten a prospective application of graphene materials for the biological treatment of wastewaters in the future.

Facile synthesis, biofilm disruption properties and biocompatibility study of a poly-cationic peptide functionalized graphene–silver nanocomposite

Safe-by-design synthesis of a poly-cationic functionalized graphene–silver nanocomposite as a novel eco-benign antibacterial, biofilm inhibiting and disrupting agent.

Electrophoretic deposition of carbon nanotube on reticulated vitreous carbon for hexavalent chromium removal in a biocathode microbial fuel cell

For Cr(VI)-removal microbial fuel cell (MFC), a more efficient biocathode in MFCs is required to improve the Cr(VI) removal and electricity generation. RVC-CNT electrode was prepared through the electrophoretic deposition of carbon nanotube (CNT) on reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC). The power density of MFC with an RVC-CNT electrode increased to 132.1 ± 2.8 mW m^-2, and 80.9% removal of Cr(VI) was achieved within 48 h; compared to only 44.5% removal of Cr(VI) in unmodified RVC. Cyclic voltammetry, energy-dispersive spectrometry and X-ray photoelectron spectrometry showed that the RVC-CNT electrode enhanced the electrical conductivity and the electron transfer rate; and provided more reaction sites for Cr(VI) reduction. This approach provides process simplicity and a thickness control method for fabricating three-dimensional biocathodes to improve the performance of MFCs for Cr(VI) removal.

Bacterial community shift and incurred performance in response to in situ microbial self-assembly graphene and polarity reversion in microbial fuel cell

In this work, bacterial community shift and incurred performance of graphene modified bioelectrode (GM-BE) in microbial fuel cell (MFC) were illustrated by high throughput sequencing technology and electrochemical analysis. The results showed that Firmicutes occupied 48.75% in graphene modified bioanode (GM-BA), while Proteobacteria occupied 62.99% in graphene modified biocathode (GM-BC), both were dominant bacteria in phylum level respectively. Typical exoelectrogens, including Geobacter, Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Geothrix and Hydrogenophaga, were counted 26.66% and 17.53% in GM-BA and GM-BC. GM-BE was tended to decrease the bacterial diversity and enrich the dominant species. Because of the enrichment of exoelectrogens and excellent electrical conductivity of graphene, the maximum power density of MFC with GM-BA and GM-BC increased 33.1% and 21.6% respectively, and the transfer resistance decreased 83.8% and 73.6% compared with blank bioelectrode. This study aimed to enrich the microbial study in MFC and broaden the development and application for bioelectrode.

Bacterial community shift and improved performance induced by in situ preparing dual graphene modified bioelectrode in microbial fuel cell

Dual graphene modified bioelectrode (D-GM-BE) was prepared by in situ microbial-induced reduction of graphene oxide (GO) and polarity reversion in microbial fuel cell (MFC). Next Generation Sequencing technology was used to elucidate bacterial community shift in response to improved performance in D-GM-BE MFC. The results indicated an increase in the relative ratio of Proteobacteria, but a decrease of Firmicutes was observed in graphene modified bioanode (GM-BA); increase of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes were observed in graphene modified biocathode (GM-BC). Genus analysis demonstrated that GM-BE was beneficial to enrich electrogens. Typical exoelectrogens were accounted for 13.02% and 8.83% in GM-BA and GM-BC. Morphology showed that both GM-BA and GM-BC formed 3D-like graphene/biofilm architectures and revealed that the biofilm viability and thickness would decrease to some extent when GM-BE was formed. D-GM-BE MFC obtained the maximum power density by 124.58±6.32mWm^-2, which was 2.34 times over C-BE MFC.

Biofilm evolution and viability during in situ preparation of a graphene/exoelectrogen composite biofilm electrode for a high-performance microbial fuel cell

Effect of microbial reduction of graphene oxide on evolution and viability of biofilm during preparation of graphene/exoelectrogen biofilm anode in microbial fuel cell (MFC) were studied by sampling the biofilm at different stages of MFC operation.

Graphene/biofilm composites for enhancement of hexavalent chromium reduction and electricity production in a biocathode microbial fuel cell

In this study, a simple method of biocathode fabrication in a Cr(VI)-reducing microbial fuel cell (MFC) is demonstrated. A self-assembling graphene was decorated onto the biocathode microbially, constructing a graphene/biofilm, in situ. The maximum power density of the MFC with a graphene biocathode is 5.7 times that of the MFC with a graphite felt biocathode. Cr(VI) reduction was also enhanced, resulting in 100% removal of Cr(VI) within 48h, at 40mg/L Cr(VI), compared with only 58.3% removal of Cr(VI) in the MFC with a graphite felt biocathode. Cyclic voltammogram analyses showed that the graphene biocathode had faster electron transfer kinetics than the graphite felt version. Energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) analysis revealed a possible adsorption-reduction mechanism for Cr(VI) reduction via the graphene biocathode. This study attempts to improve the efficiency of the biocathode in the Cr(VI)-reducing MFC, and provides a useful candidate method for the treatment of Cr(VI) contaminated wastewater, under neutral conditions.

Applications of Graphene-Modified Electrodes in Microbial Fuel Cells

Graphene-modified materials have captured increasing attention for energy applications due to their superior physical and chemical properties, which can significantly enhance the electricity generation performance of microbial fuel cells (MFC). In this review, several typical synthesis methods of graphene-modified electrodes, such as graphite oxide reduction methods, self-assembly methods, and chemical vapor deposition, are summarized. According to the different functions of the graphene-modified materials in the MFC anode and cathode chambers, a series of design concepts for MFC electrodes are assembled, e.g., enhancing the biocompatibility and improving the extracellular electron transfer efficiency for anode electrodes and increasing the active sites and strengthening the reduction pathway for cathode electrodes. In spite of the challenges of MFC electrodes, graphene-modified electrodes are promising for MFC development to address the reduction in efficiency brought about by organic waste by converting it into electrical energy.

3D dual-confined sulfur encapsulated in porous carbon nanosheets and wrapped with graphene aerogels as a cathode for advanced lithium sulfur batteries

Although lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have attracted much attention due to their high theoretical specific energy and low cost, their practical applications have been severely hindered by poor cycle life, inadequate sulfur utilization, and the insulating nature of sulfur. Here, we report a rationally designed Li-S cathode with a dual-confined configuration formed by confining sulfur in 2D carbon nanosheets with an abundant porous structure followed by 3D graphene aerogel wrapping. The porous carbon nanosheets act as the sulfur host and suppress the diffusion of polysulfide, while the graphene conductive networks anchor the sulfur-adsorbed carbon nanosheets, providing pathways for rapid electron/ion transport and preventing polysulfide dissolution. As a result, the hybrid electrode exhibits superior electrochemical performance, including a large reversible capacity of 1328 mA h g(-1) in the first cycle, excellent cycling stability (maintaining a reversible capacity of 647 mA h g(-1) at 0.2 C after 300 cycles) with nearly 100% Coulombic efficiency, and a high rate capability of 512 mA h g(-1) at 8 C for 30 cycles, which is among the best reported rate capabilities.

Current status, key challenges and its solutions in the design and development of graphene based ORR catalysts for the microbial fuel cell applications

Microbial fuel cells (MFC) are considered as the futuristic energy device that generates electricity from the catalytic degradation of biodegradable organic wastes using microbes, which exist in waste water. In MFCs, oxygen serves as a cathodic electron acceptor and oxygen reduction kinetics played a significant role in the determination of overall efficiency. A wide range of strategies have been developed for the preparation and substantial modification of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysts to improve the maximum volumetric power density of MFCs, in which the efforts on graphene based ORR catalysts are highly imperative. Although numerous research endeavors have been achieved in relation with the graphene based ORR catalysts applicable for MFCs, still their collective summary has not been developed, which hinders the acquirement of adequate knowledge on tuning the specific properties of said catalysts. The intension of this review is to outline the significant role of ORR catalysts, factors influencing the ORR activity, strategies behind the modifications of ORR catalysts and update the research efforts devoted on graphene based ORR catalysts. This review can be considered as a pertinent guide to understand the design and developmental strategies of competent graphene based ORR catalysts, which are not only applicable for MFCs but also for number of electrochemical applications.

Adaptively Evolving Bacterial Communities for Complete and Selective Reduction of Cr(VI), Cu(II), and Cd(II) in Biocathode Bioelectrochemical Systems

Bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) have been shown to be useful in removing individual metals from solutions, but effective treatment of electroplating and mining wastewaters requires simultaneous removal of several metals in a single system. To develop multiple-reactor BESs for metals removal, biocathodes were first individually acclimated to three different metals using microbial fuel cells with Cr(VI) or Cu(II) as these metals have relatively high redox potentials, and microbial electrolysis cells for reducing Cd(II) as this metal has a more negative redox potential. The BESs were then acclimated to low concentrations of a mixture of metals, followed by more elevated concentrations. This procedure resulted in complete and selective metal reduction at rates of 1.24 ± 0.01 mg/L-h for Cr(VI), 1.07 ± 0.01 mg/L-h for Cu(II), and 0.98 ± 0.01 mg/L-h for Cd(II). These reduction rates were larger than the no adaptive controls by factors of 2.5 for Cr(VI), 2.9 for Cu(II), and 3.6 for Cd(II). This adaptive procedure produced less diverse microbial communities and changes in the microbial communities at the phylum and genus levels. These results demonstrated that bacterial communities can adaptively evolve to utilize solutions containing mixtures of metals, providing a strategy for remediating wastewaters containing Cr(VI), Cu(II), and Cd(II).

Graphene-modified electrodes for enhancing the performance of microbial fuel cells

Graphene is an emerging material with superior physical and chemical properties, which can benefit the development of microbial fuel cells (MFC) in several aspects. Graphene-based anodes can enhance MFC performance with increased electron transfer efficiency, higher specific surface area and more active microbe-electrode-electrolyte interaction. For cathodic processes, oxygen reduction reaction is effectively catalyzed by graphene-based materials because of a favorable pathway and an increase in active sites and conductivity. Despite challenges, such as complexity in synthesis and property degeneration, graphene-based electrodes will be promising for developing MFCs and other bioelectrochemical systems to achieve sustainable water/wastewater treatment and bioenergy production.

Biosynthesis approach to nitrogen doped graphene by denitrifying bacteria CFMI-1

A facile and biosynthetic microbial method to produce N-doped graphene nanosheets is described.

Substrate removal and electricity generation in a membrane-less microbial fuel cell for biological treatment of wastewater

Microbial fuel cells have gained popularity in recent years due to its promise in converting organic wastewater into renewable electrical energy. In this study, a membrane-less MFC with a biocathode was developed to evaluate its performance in electricity generation while simultaneously treating wastewater. The MFC fed with a continuous flow of 2g/day acetate produced a power density of 30 mW/m(2) and current density of 245 mA/m(2). A substrate degradation efficiency (SDE) of 75.9% was achieved with 48.7% attributed to the anaerobic process and 27.2% to the aerobic process. Sequencing analysis of the microbial consortia using 16S rDNA pryosequencing showed the predominance of Bacteroidia in the anode after one month of operation, while the microbial community in the cathode chamber was dominated by Gamma-proteobacteria and Beta-proteobacteria. Coulombic efficiencies varied from 19.8% to 58.1% using different acetate concentrations, indicating power density can be further improved through the accumulation of electron-transferring bacteria.

Recent progress in graphene-based nanomaterials as advanced electrocatalysts towards oxygen reduction reaction

Development of state-of-the-art electrocatalysts with inexpensive and commercially available materials to facilitate sluggish cathodic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is a key issue in the development of fuel cells and other electrochemical energy devices. Although great progress has been achieved in this area of research and development, there are still some challenges in both their ORR activity and stability. The emergence of graphene (GN) provides an excellent alternative to electrode materials and great efforts have been made to utilize GN-based nanomaterials as promising electrode materials for ORR due to the high electrical conductivity, large specific surface area, profuse interlayer structure and abounding functional groups involved. It should be noted that rational design of these GN-based nanomaterials with well-defined morphology also plays an important role in their electrochemical performance for ORR. Considerable attempts were achieved to construct a variety of heteroatom doped GN nanomaterials or GN-based nanocomposites, aiming at fully using their excellent properties in their application in ORR. In this critical review, in line with the material design and engineering, some recent advancements in the development of GN-based electrocatalysts for ORR in electrochemical energy devices (fuel cells and batteries) are then highlighted, including heteroatom-doped GN nanomaterials, GN-based nonprecious hybrid nanocomposites (GN/metal oxides, GN/N-M, GN/carbon nitride, etc.) and GN/noble metal nanocomposites.